Perceptions of Science and Mathematics Teachers about the Relations between What Courses for Qualified Science Mathematics Education in Elementary Schools (889-897)

ahmet kıray

The study aims to determine pre-service science teachers' epistemological beliefs. For this purpose, five fourth grade pre-service science teachers enrolled at the education Faculty of a University in Kayseri participated in the research. Phenomenology design was used and a semi-structured interview including 13 items was conducted. The data were analysed through content analysis by developing codes and themes based on five epistemological belief categories. According to the findings, the participants' epistemological belief categories can be put in order from the most sophisticated to the most naive as follows: 'Omniscient authority', 'Certain knowledge and quick learning', 'Simple knowledge' and 'Innate ability'. The findings indicated that epistemological beliefs of the participants are at different development levels for each category. Since they reflect the individual differences, epistemological beliefs should not be ignored in developing a program and determining classroom activities.

Research has consistently shown that teachers' epistemological beliefs have a significant impact on their teaching and teacher effectiveness in the teaching-learning process. This study investigated epistemological beliefs (EBs) of teacher educators in higher education institutions and teacher education institutes in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP). The study aimed at identifying teacher-centered and learners' centered EBs, examine the relationship of EBs and gender, find out the relationship of teachers' qualification with the EBs of teacher education, and explore differences between the EBs of teacher educators of public universities and RITEs. Of the 212 teacher educators of the study population, the data were collected through stratified random sampling from 145 respondents. Epistemological beliefs questionnaire (EBQ) and a scale for demographics were used for gathering data from the research participants. Percentages, Mean, One way ANOVA and Pearson r was used for data analysis. Findings of the study show that a majority of the teacher educators believed that the structure of knowledge is simple, half of the teacher educators believed that knowledge is certain. Similarly, a majority of the teachers did not believe in authority as a source of knowledge and considered that the ability to learn is not innate. A majority of the respondents did not agree that learning is a quick process. There was no significant difference in the EBs of male and female teacher educators; there was no significant difference in the EBs of teachers from universities and RITES, except in the dimension of the stability of knowledge, wherein educators from RITEs have unsophisticated beliefs and there is no significant effect of experience on the epistemological beliefs of teacher educators. 

This paper seeks to highlight the importance of investing in research of students epistemological and pedagogical beliefs and teachers epistemological and pedagogical beliefs. Faculty of Education-Bitola takes first step in this kind of importance investigation. We want to give attention on responsibilities which have all institution who trains teachers. Faculty of Education- Bitola is in the beginning of couple of research’s who investigate this kind of beliefs. This is very important for improvement the quality of teacher education. The paper briefly explains and makes literature review of epistemological and pedagogical beliefs. Also in this paper shortly are present research’s that are already in process and future steps that will be taken in part of science research’s. These kinds of research’s are important not only for Faculty of Education-Bitola and institutions who trains teachers but for whole society. Results of this investigation will help in improvement of whole educational system. Getting information about students and teachers’ epistemological and pedagogical beliefs in lot can change improving the classroom practice.

FURTHER EDUCATION IN THE BALKAN COUNTRIES BALKAN SOCIETY FOR PEDAGOGY AND EDICATION Editors Özcan Demirel Ali Murat Sünbül FURTHER EDUCATION IN THE BALKAN COUNTRIES VOLUME – II Design by Ahmet Oğuz Aktürk Selahattin Alan Muhittin Çalışkan Veysel Demirer Fatih Özdinç Printing run number: ISBN  2008 Balkan Society for Pedagogy and Education 54006 Thessaloniki/GREECE Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Faculty of Philosophy and Education Department of Education tel & fax +302310.997348 e-mail: terzis@ccf.auth.gr Cover designed by Veysel Demirer & Ahmet Oğuz Aktürk Copyright is acquired without any formulation and without the need of a clause prohibiting any challenges against it. In any case, in accordance with the Act 2121/1993 and the Bern International convention (ratified by the Act 100/1975) the re-publication and generally the reproduction of the present work, in whatever way, (electronic, mechanical, photo-copying, audio recording or other), in party or in summary, in the original or translation or in other adaptation, is not permitted, without the written consent from the author or publisher. Table of Contents Foreword .............................................................................................................. i Chapter 6 (Part-II) Teacher Education in the Balkan Countries 6.16. Developing Prospective Teachers’ Epistemological Beliefs Aytunga Oğuz, H. Özge Bahar (Turkey) ................................................ 787 6.17. Emotional Education – A Challenge for Teachers Training Aurora Adina Ignat (Romania) .............................................................. 795 6.18. Further Education of Teachers in Sarajevo Canton - Karmelita Pjanic (Bosnia and Herzegovina) .......................................................... 805 6.19. How often do Preschool Education Teachers Use Activity Materials in Konya? - Perihan Ünüvar, Kamile Özer (Turkey) ............. 815 6.20. Implementation of the Nine-Year Compulsory Primary Education in the Republic Of Macedonia - Jasmina Delceva-Dizdarevik (F.Y.R.O.Macedonia) ............................................................................. 823 6.21. In-Service Training of Pre-School and Primary Teachers. Needs Assessment in Bukovina Region - Otilia Clipa, Aurora – Adina Ignat, Mihai Stanciu (Romania)............................................................. 831 6.22. In-Service Training of Teachers as a Part of Lifelong Learning in Turkey - Figen Ereş, Ahmet Üstün (Turkey) .......................................... 843 6.23. International Student Teaching: Touring the Exotic or Becoming a Teacher? - A. Cendel Karaman (Turkey) ............................................... 851 6.24. Investigating Teacher’s Practice According To the Level of Students - Savaş Baştürk, Halil İ. Taşova, Gözde Seçkin (Turkey)........ 859 6.25. Lessons for Prospective Teachers: Moral Dilemmas Teachers Encounter in School Contexts - Hanife Akar, Yeliz Temli, Derya Şen (Turkey) ........................................................................................... 867 6.26. Mathematics Teaching Efficacy of Pre-Service and In-Service Elementary Teachers in Turkey and Finland - Nihan Şahinkaya (Turkey), Jorma Joutsenlahti (Finland), Neşe Tertemiz (Turkey).......... 877 6.27. Pedagogical Tactfulness - Corina Iurea, Cristina Geogiana Safta (Romania) .............................................................................................. 883 6.28. Perceptions of Science and Mathematics Teachers about the Relations between What Courses for Qualified Science Mathematics Education in Elementary Schools - S. Ahmet Kıray, Bilge Gök, İlke Çaıişkan, Fitnat Kaptan (Turkey) ................................. 889 6.29. Preschool Teachers’ Beliefs Concerning Their Professional Identity - Anna Moutafidou, Artemis Alexandra Georgopoulou, Erene Sivropoulou (Greece)................................................................... 899 6.30. Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Teaching Self-Efficacy Beliefs Sevgi Aydın, Yezdan Boz (Turkey).......................................................... 907 6.31. Preservice Teachers as Developmental Readers: Life Histories Hakan Dedeoğlu (Turkey)...................................................................... 915 6.32. Student Teachers’ Professional Competencies as a Teacher Fatma Türk, Atilla Çimer (Turkey) ........................................................ 929 6.33. Teacher’s Perceptions of Organizational Support, Beliefs of SelfEfficacy and Burnout - Cevat Celep, Elif Abat, Filiz Özsoy (Turkey).................................................................................................. 939 6.34. Teachers’ Notions about the Their’ Occupational Improvement Ahmet Kurnaz, Ali Murat Sünbül (Turkey) ............................................ 953 6.35. Teachers’ Views about In-Service Training Programs Related To the New Primary School Mathematics Curriculum: The Case of Trabzon - Osman Birgin, Tayfun Tutak, Hakan Çatlıoğlu (Turkey) ...... 965 6.36. The Efficacy Perception on Teachers’ Practicing Teaching Strategies Working in Primary Education Schools - Güngör Keskinkılıç, Derya Çınar (Turkey) ......................................................... 975 6.37. The Importance of Teaching Effective Communication Skills in Teacher Education - Gülgün Sertkaya (Turkey)..................................... 981 6.38. The Meanings Attributed to the Future Features of Teachers by Prospective Teachers - Ergin Erginer, Fevzi Dursun (Turkey).............. 991 6.39. The Meaning of Undergraduate, Graduate and Postgraduate Programs from the Point of Undergraduates - Nida Temiz (Turkey)... 1003 6.40. The Opinions of Teacher Candidates about Developing Vocabulary - Çetin Çetinkaya, Olcay Özdemir (Turkey) ..................... 1013 6.41. The Opinions of Class Teachers Regarding In-Service Training Ayşe Mentiş Taş, Zuhal Güven (Turkey) .............................................. 1027 6.42. The Perception of Professional Autonomy among Educators of Adults - Kristinka Ovesni (Serbia)....................................................... 1035 6.43. The Problems in Practice Experienced By Teachers Graduating From Different Fields: Case of Düzce - Şenay Sezgin Nartgün, Serpil Kefeli (Turkey)........................................................................... 1045 6.44. Toward Their Professional Development: Do the Prospective Teachers Benefit from Academic and Social Facilities? A METU Case - Tuba Fidan, Ercan Kiraz (Turkey)............................................ 1053 6.45. Ways of Upgrading the Values of Action Researches Focused on the Life-Long Learning of Teachers - Dean Iliev (F.Y.R.O.Macedonia) ........................................................................... 1061 6.46. What a Mentor Means in the Romanian Rural Education System Langa Claudiu, Soare Emanuel (Romania) ......................................... 1067 6.47. What Can Teacher Autobiographies Reveal about Teachers’ Lives and Thinking? - Beyhan Nazlı Kocbeker Eid, Ahmet Saban (Turkey)................................................................................................ 1075 Chapter 7 Vocational Education in the Balkan Countries 7.1. A Study on Vocational and Technical Teacher Training Programs in Turkey - Esed Yağcı, Nevriye Yazçayır (Turkey) ............................. 1087 7.2. Entrepreneurship Education – An Innovative Approach of Further Education - Emanuel Soare (Romania)................................................ 1095 7.3. The Turkish Vocational School in Balkans: KOMEK - Mücahit Sami Küçüktığlı (Turkey) ..................................................................... 1101 7.4. Vocational Counseling Needs of Parents with Disabled Children Simona Eftimie, Alina Mărgăriţoiu (Romania) .................................... 1111 Chapter 8 Others 8.1. A New Scale of Ethical Violations of Faculty Members (EVFM) based on Student Perceptions - Gökhan Özaslan, İsmail Şahin, Ömer Beyhan, Ali Murat Sünbül (Turkey) ........................................... 1121 8.2. An Examination of Freshmen’s Expectations from and Disappointments of College Education - İsa Korkmaz (Turkey).......... 1131 8.3. An Evaluation of Principals’ Effectiveness as the Leader of Guidance Services at Schools - Mustafa Yavuz, Fatih Yılmaz, Murat Önal, Adem Küçük (Turkey)...................................................... 1139 8.4. Aspects of Environmental Education during the Whole Life - Selfo Oruçi (Albania) .................................................................................... 1147 8.5. Attitudes of Prospective Teachers towards the Role in Students’ Moral Development - Derya Şen, Hanife Akar (Turkey) ..................... 1153 8.6. Basic Numeracy Skills for Adults - Pınar Albayrak Ataklı (Turkey)................................................................................................ 1163 8.7. Continuing Education and Professional Development for Greek Primary School Teachers - Athina A. Sipitanou, Nikos D. Grigoriadis (Greece)............................................................................ 1173 8.8. Corporate Social Responsibility in Education: The Case of Turkey - Yaşar Kondakçı (Turkey) ................................................................... 1181 8.9. Cultural Aspects of Semiotics - İsmail Fırat Altay (Turkey)................ 1191 8.10. Differences in Outcomes between Students Studying in ECT System and Students Studying in Traditional System - Sofija Arnaudova, Ivan Trajkov (F.Y.R.O.Macedonia) .................................. 1199 8.11. Education and Ethnic Tolerance - Albena Nakova (Bulgaria) ............. 1205 8.12. Ethical Values and Education - Ercan Yılmaz (Turkey)....................... 1215 8.13. European Tools for Lifelong Learning and Lifelong Mobility Irene Psifidou (Greece)........................................................................ 1223 8.14. Evaluation of Problem Solving Ability of Prospective Primary School Teachers - Işıl Sönmez Ektem, Mehmet Şahin, Perihan Ünüvar, Sabahattin Çiftçi (Turkey)...................................................... 1233 8.15. Evaluation of the Supervised Practice of Students Specializing in the Field of ‘Continuing Education’ - Anastasia A. Pampouri, Evdokia-Theoni Mitropoulou (Greece) ................................................ 1241 8.16. Examination of Textbooks According to Teachers’ Evaluations Nevin Saylan, Hasan Hüseyin Şahan (Turkey)..................................... 1253 8.17. Experiences, Practices and Strategies for Comprehensiveness in Pre-School and Elementary Educational System - Margarita Hido (Albania) .............................................................................................. 1277 8.18. Faulty Intonation of Nonnative Language Teachers Requiring Further Education - Mehmet Demirezen (Turkey)................................ 1285 8.19. Further Education and Emancipative Literacy: Study of an Innovative Example in Greece - Vassilios Dagdilelis, Maria Bontila, Achilleas Kapsalis (Greece) ................................................... 1295 8.20. Further Education as a Frame for Developing Life Skills - Tatjana Atanasoska (F.Y.R.O.Macedonia)........................................................ 1303 8.21. How Does Cooperative Learning Fit in with the Other Elements in an Effective Language Classroom? - Ece Sarıgül (Turkey) ................. 1311 8.22. Initial Teacher Education in Tertiary Education of Greece Michail Georgiadis (Greece) ............................................................... 1319 8.23. In-Service Training for Teachers: Their Needs and Attitudes in the Province of Greece - Catherine Dimitriadou, Dora Psoma (Greece) ............................................................................................... 1329 8.24. Intercultural Education - A Challenge of Contemporary World Adina Pescaru (Romania) .................................................................... 1339 8.25. Kindergarten Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and Attributions for Positive and Negative Classroom Situations - Georgia Stephanou, Eirini Sivropoulou (Greece) ........................................................................... 1347 8.26. Language Learning Strategies for Academic Purposes - Yasin Aslan (Turkey)...................................................................................... 1359 8.27. Mathematical Modelling Activities in Primary Mathematics Education - Halil Ardahan (Turkey) .................................................... 1367 8.28. Media Literacy Education in Balkan Countries: The Greece and Turkey Case - Belgin Tanrıverdi (Turkey) ........................................... 1377 8.29. Mother Tongue Effect in Teaching English as a Second Language - Emine Eda Ercan (Turkey) ................................................................ 1391 8.30. Motivation for Teaching Career. Motivation for Didactical Career - Condition for Durable Society Development in Multicultural Diversity - Ion-Ovidiu Pânişoară, Georgeta Pânişoară (Romania) .... 1399 8.31. Practical Precepts to Improve the Performance of Students in Speaking - Hasan Çakır (Turkey) ........................................................ 1407 8.32. Second Chance Schools in Greece Revisited - Eleni Hodolidou (Greece) ............................................................................................... 1419 8.33. Social and Cultural Issues in Parent Education - Çare Sertelin Mercan (Turkey) .................................................................................. 1427 8.34. Teachers' Conceptions about Game Based Learning in Mathematics Education: Ttnetvitamin Case - Serkan Coştu, Serhat Aydın, Mehmet Filiz (Turkey)............................................................... 1435 8.35. States and Perspectives in Qualification of Teachers for Realization of the Tasks of the Pedagogy of Leisure Time - Aneta Barakoska (F.Y.R.O.Macedonia) ......................................................... 1445 8.36. The In-Service Teachers’ Training in Greece: The Case of History Education in the Secondary Level - Dimitris Mavroskoufis (Greece) ............................................................................................... 1453 8.37. The New Paradigm in the Evaluation of the Student’s Achivements in the Natural-Mathematical Subjects - Nikolina Georgieva (Bulgaria) ........................................................................... 1463 8.38. The Opinions of Teachers’ and Prospective Teachers to Improve the Quality in Education - Eda Erdem, Özcan Demirel (Turkey)......... 1471 8.39. The Point of Views of the Students towards Tourism Profession Azize Tunç Hussein, Nevin Şanlıer (Turkey) ........................................ 1479 8.40. The Right to Education as One of the Fundamental Human Rights (The Case of Albania) - Ermonela Ruspi (Albania)............................. 1489 8.41. The Strategies and the Methods Used in the Subject of Geography for the Treatment of Natural Heritage - Gentian Ruspi (Albania)........ 1497 8.42. To Investigate the Effect of School Managers’ Ethical Leadership Levels on the Organizational Trust Level - Vicdan Altınok, Ercan Yılmaz (Turkey) .................................................................................... 1505 8.43. Training Needs of Teachers in Greece - D. B. Goudiras, S. Polychronopoulou, Σ. S. Papadopoulou, K. Papadopoulos (Greece) ............................................................................................... 1519 Foreword This is the eleventh volume in the series of conference proceedings, launched by the Balkan Society for Pedagogy and Education, that contains all the papers presented in the Society’s international conference on the theme “Further Education in the Balkan Countries”, that was held in Konya-Turkey on 23-25 October 2008. With this volume the Balkan Society for Pedagogy and Education continues the already established tradition, to focus each year on an issue with a special interest for its members, discuss it in a conference and give a feedback to the academic community with a published volume of its proceedings. Each volume depicts different facets of an issue, as this is approached in each Balkan country separately, as well as the views and the problematisations of pedagogues and educationalists from the all around the Balkans. Each conference as a result of a process of dialogue and exchange of views and opinions, has its own value and importance in relation to the issues that it deals with. However, each conference also gives the opportunity to the participants to meet and get to know each other, to discuss and promote their views and their work and to develop friendships and collaborations at an academic level. The later is by all means as important as the conference itself. The Konya conference dealt with an issue of a high importance and priority not only for the Balkans, but globally. Further education, is mainly used in the meaning of post secondary education. In this context, it covers various educational entities and institutions such as higher education, lifelong education, adult education, non-formal education, vocational education, teacher education and tertiary education. It is a fact that the role of further education is to promote the citizenship as national and/or European citizenship identity of young generation in the Balkan countries. It is from this position, as editors of this volume, to thank all the people who made the Konya conference a real success and a valuable memory for all who participated to it. . We would like to thank the mayor of the municipality of Konya, Mr. Tahir Akyürek, and the other i conference sponsors for financing this symposium and also to the Rector of Selcuk University, Prof. Dr. Süleyman Okudan, for his hospitality. We would also like to thank all those who put their personal time and work for its preparation and publication, and particularly Muhittin Çalışkan, Selahattin Alan and Ahmet Oğuz Aktürk and last but not least Dr. Ali Murat Sünbül, for their effortless work and contribution. Ankara, December 10, 2008 Professor Özcan Demirel ii Chapter 6 (Part-II) Teacher Education in the Balkan Countries Developing Prospective Teachers’ Epistemological Beliefs Aytunga Oğuz, H. Özge Bahar, Dumlupınar University – Turkey Abstract Teachers’ having sophisticated epistemological beliefs influence the learning environment. Teachers with sophisticated epistemological beliefs can help their students to develop higher-order thinking skills and be more successful. For this reason, it must be given importance to the development of prospective teachers’ epistemological beliefs. Epistemological beliefs are an individual’s beliefs regarding knowledge, knowing and learning. The aim of this study is to discuss the ways of developing the prospective teachers’ epistemological beliefs. Research findings indicate that constructivist learning activities can develop epistemological beliefs. Some such student-centered approaches as cooperative learning or problem-based learning can be used in developing these beliefs. These approaches can help students to have multiple viewpoints rather than accepting knowledge as unchanging truth. Prospective teachers’ trying to solve real-life problems can develop their beliefs that learning depends on effort. For this reason, teacher trainers should have model behaviours and lead the prospective teachers to constructivist learning activities. Key words: Prospective teacher, teacher education, epistemological belief Introduction The characteristics of teachers influence the learning environment and one of these characteristics is their epistemological beliefs. Epistemological beliefs are individual’s personal beliefs about what knowledge is, how knowing and learning occur. According to Schommer’s model, these beliefs are a system composed of multidimensional set of more or less independent beliefs. These dimensions are: 1. Omniscient authority 2. Certain knowledge 3. Simple knowledge 4. Quick learning 5. Innate ability (Brownlee, 2001; Deryakulu, 2004; Schommer, 1990). While naïve epistemological beliefs refer to the beliefs that truth is certain, absolute and transferred by an authority, sophisticated beliefs refer to the ones that truth is relative, changing and actively constructed 788 Developing Prospective Teachers’ Epistemological Beliefs by the individual (Brownlee, Purdie & Boulton-Lewis, 2001). It is stated that sophisticated epistemological beliefs are in line with constructivist learning approach, but the naïve ones are in line with obejectivist learning approach (Howard, McGee, Schwartz & Purcell, 2000). The development of epistemological beliefs are related with cognitive, affective and socio-cultural variables. These beliefs both influence the students’ learning process and are influenced by different variables in the learning process (Chan & Elliott; 2002; Deryakulu, 2004). One of these variables is teacher and it is important that a teacher has sophisticated epistemological beliefs. The aim of this study is to put forward the factors influencing the prospective teachers’ epistemological beliefs at teacher education programmes, to discuss how these beliefs could be developed in the learning environments and to come up with some suggestions. The Importance of Developing Prospective Teachers’ Epistemological Beliefs In teacher education, it is very essential to know and develop prospective teachers’ epistemological beliefs. Though most teacher trainers would agree with that idea, generally, teacher training programmes do not have the framework to facilitate this development (Brownlee et al., 2001). However, previous researches show that epistemological beliefs influence students’ learning process, their participation in this process, their performances (Schreiber & Shinn, 2003); academic achievement and learning approaches (Cano, 2005). Prospective teachers can become more successful if their epistemological beliefs are developed. Being more qualified with sophisticated epistemological beliefs, they can better guide their students in the future. Teachers’ having sophisticated epistemological beliefs affect teaching practices and is important in maintaining student success (Gill, Ashton & Algine, 2004). It is possible to see epistemological beliefs as the base for teachers’ decisions regarding the instructional planning, application and evaluation processes. Teachers’ providing the students with various choices on a topic and helping them to choose one of them, or presenting what they know and expecting students to adopt them as they are all related with their epistemological beliefs. Teachers with sophisticated epistemological beliefs can organize the learning environment in a student-centered way and provide their students with active learning experiences. In that way, they can help their students to develop beliefs that knowledge is not absolute; on the contrary, it is relative, changing and can be constructed actively by the individual and can contribute to their success. As students’ epistemological beliefs are influenced by the teachers’ instructional practices and can be developed (Hofer, 2004), and also to support the changes in curricula, teachers’ thoughts and beliefs should be Aytunga Oğuz, H. Özge Bahar 789 known (Chan & Elliott, 2002). That teachers, who will put the curricula into practice, can keep up with the educational reforms necessiates their having sophisticated beliefs. For this reason, prospective teachers’ epistemological beliefs should be examined starting from the freshman year and developed with in and out-of-class activities. Activities for Developing the Epistemological Beliefs in Teacher Education In developing the epistemological beliefs, such variables as age, family, culture, etc. are influential besides education. Related researches show that these beliefs can be developed through various practices (Brownlee, 2004; Gill, Ashton & Algine, 2004; Hofer, 2004). For instance, it has been found out that teaching critical thinking principles (Valanides & Angeli, 2005), a constructivist instructional approach (Howard et al., 2000), and the teaching programme to develop prospective teachers’ epistemological beliefs (Brownlee et al., 2001) change or develop the epistemological beliefs. Related research indicate that epistemological beliefs can be developed in constructivist learning environments in teacher education programmes. Using constructivist approaches in teacher education may result in epistemological changes in line with constructivist philosophies (Howard et al., 2000). According to constructivist approach, knowledge is constructed actively by the learner based on his or her background knowledge and experiences (Brooks & Brooks, 1999). A constructivist classroom should be a place where the learner questions information, researches, solves problems and has rich learning experiences (Demirel, 2006). In such an environment, students have the chance to test what they have learned previously, correct their mistakes and even replace their previous knowledge with the new ones. In this learning process, a special communication style is adopted to develop students’ independent thinking and problem-solving skills (Yaşar, 1998). In such a learning environment, prospective teachers can be guided with instructions and questions. For instance, prospective teachers can be asked some such questions as “How should a teacher treat a student that often comes to class late? Why do you think so? What other approaches can be used? How could you help a student that does not work in harmony with his or her friends in a project work? What is the best way?”, and their thinking and problem-solving skills can be developed in that way. When asking such guiding questions, it should be paid attention to that they lead students to think, include various reponses or various ways to respond them, lead students to answer and arouse curiosity. Moreover, in the learning process, students’ higher order cognitive skills can be developed by asking anticipated, clarifying, and integrating questions (Gagnon & Collay, 2001). What is more, in these environments, prospective teachers should be encouraged to ask questions and discuss. 790 Developing Prospective Teachers’ Epistemological Beliefs In constructivist learning environments, providing the prospective teachers with chances to discuss can develop their epistemological beliefs. Research findings indicate that the students with naïve epistemological beliefs about knowledge more tend to avoid discussions (Nussbaum & Bendixen, 2003). Students’ having dialogues or discussions in groups give them a chance to reconstruct their concepts or change them (Brooks & Brooks, 1999). For this reason, such techniques as cooperative small group discussions, debates, opinion development can be used in the classroom environment. For instance, prospective teachers can make interviews with the students in the practice schools and ask which sources they make use of to reach information and the reasons for using them. They can determine the students’ learning strategies and make discussions, categorizations or evaluations about them. Thus, they can have a deep and multidimentional understanding of the individual differences concerning students’ learning in authentic learning environments. Learning is a social experience. Individuals make personal meaning first, then they test their ideas being in contact with other people and construct meaning, lastly they construct shared meanings reviewing what they have constructed in bigger populations (Vygotsky, 1986; cited by: Gagnon & Collay, 2001). Individuals’ social environment has an important role in this process. In this environment, individuals need to act in a democratic, cooperative, reflective and critical way. A cooperative learning environment can help prospective teachers to view knowledge from multiple perspectives and not to accept it as an unchanging absolute truth. It has been found out that teachers with sophisticated epistemological beliefs use cooperative learning more effectively as a learning strategy (Brody & Hill, 1991). So, cooperative techniques should take place in learning environments to develop prospective teachers’ epistemological beliefs. In cooperative learning, project-based learning, and problem-based learning activities, prospective teachers should take place actively. If their epistemological beliefs are sophisticated, they can make more effort to solve complex problems. It is stated that the students who believe learning is dependent on effort the have sophisticated problem solving strategies (Öngen, 2003). When the individuals believe that knowledge is complex and uncertain in nature, they try harder to develop themselves and give importance to personal development (DeBacker & Crowson, 2006). So, prospective teachers can be provided with opportunities to use the new technologies to reach information from various resources and be given projects having complex real life problems and problem scenarios. Students should be encouraged to make use of the primary sources and create their own materials when solving the real-life problems. As a group, they can present a plan, a project, a newspaper draft or a report to the class. They can develop a material and present in class how they prepared them and how they Aytunga Oğuz, H. Özge Bahar 791 feel about developing a material. Such presentations are a chance for students to put forward and share their own opinions and feelings, knowledge and skills with their friends (Gagnon & Collay, 2001). For example, prospective teachers can prepare a newspaper for the parents. After discussing as a group, they can decide what to include in this newspaper –the articles, news, pictures, etc.-, how to reach these resources and the reasons for choosing them. They can deliver the prepared newspaper to the parents in the school environment, ask for their views and do authentic assessments. The prospective teachers can be asked to put forward some reflective opinions, keep reflective journals and take feedback from the lecturers regarding this process. Providing the prospective teachers with chances to reflect on their epistemological beliefs to promote a development in their epistemological beliefs may be essential (Brownlee et al., 2001). Giving place to reflective thinking in the learning process increases students’ awareness about what they have learned, improves their metacognitive skills and affective features (Gagnon & Collay, 2001). It is stated that metacognitive skills are related with epistemological beliefs. Students with sophisticated epistemological beliefs can use their cognitive and metacognitive skills effectively and efficiently, do not give up when faced with difficulties and be more successful. It is seen that students with naïve epistemological beliefs use easy and superficial cognitive and metacognitive strategies like memorizing information and give up easily when faced with difficulties. These students tend to simplify complex information too much; view information that is not based on enough proof to be certain, and come up with one-way ideas and limited point of view (Deryakulu, 2004; Öngen, 2003; Schommer, 1990; Valanides & Angeli, 2005). During the activities, giving prospective teachers opportunities for reflective thinking can develop their meta-cognitive skills and epistemological beliefs. In this process, lecturers’ and practice teachers’ guiding the prospective teachers with model behaviours is very important. However, Vygotsky pointed out the necessity to decrease adults’ outside control for the students’ to internalize knowledge and become independent thinkers who have self-control (Senemoğlu, 2007). For this reason, prospective teachers’ internalizing knowledge and having more sophisticated epistemological beliefs can be thought to be closely related with teacher trainers’ making them autonomus learners. Lecturers’ and practice teachers’ epistemological beliefs and behaviours regarding their beliefs may influence the development of prospective teachers’ epistemological beliefs. If a teacher has relative beliefs, he or she can help students acquire more sophisticated beliefs. As Schommer-Aikins (2004) state, teachers’ epitemological beliefs influence the instruction and evaluation process causing an influence on students’ epistemological beliefs. For example, if 792 Developing Prospective Teachers’ Epistemological Beliefs teacher trainers have such beliefs as “Teacher is the only source for getting information and students should follow the teacher.”, they can cause prospective teachers to have similar beliefs. For this reason, it is important how lecturers and practice teachers put forward their epistemological beliefs. Their attitudes and behaviours during the learning activities should be open to innovations, criticisms, multiple viewpoints and researches. It is necessary that lecturers and practice teachers be an effective model for prospective teachers to develop their epistemological beliefs, and also to guide them to active learning tasks in cooperative and complex learning situations. In a study with first year college students, it was found out that a teaching programme which includes students’ self-reflection and reflections on learning strategies, dialogues, connected knowing, collaboration, interactions with the teachers, and interactive workshops resulted in higher grades, remembring rates, ego, career development and two years later more sophisticated epistemological beliefs in the students in the intervention group (Stanton, 1996, cited by Brownlee et al., 2001). Moreover, as the constructivist learning process includes measurement and evaluation, too, instead of focusing on traditional approaches necessiating an absolute correct answer, multi-faceted evaluation tools and techniques like portfolios, concept maps, or journals should be used. On the other hand, students’ regarding the course book and teacher as the only authorities and not guiding the students to do research from various resources may result in naïve epistemological beliefs that knowledge is made up of either unambiguous, isolated bits, there is only one unchanging truth, learning is either quick or all-or-none and ability to learn is innate rather than acquired. Result and Suggestions Prospective teachers’ epistemological beliefs can be developed by organizing constructivist, student-centered, active learning environments in teacher education programmes. As Öngen (2003) states, the development of the epistemological beliefs can be promoted through courses which include theoretical information and practice about learning how to learn, cognitive approach, developing the meta-cognitive skills, epistemology, scientific research methods and techniques, etc. Such courses should take place in teacher education programmes. It should be noted that there are few researches on how to develop prospective teachers’ epistemological beliefs in teacher education process. Thus, more studies regarding the effects of classroom practices on prospective teachers’ epistemological beliefs should be done. Aytunga Oğuz, H. Özge Bahar 793 References Brody, C., & Hill, L. (1991). Cooperative learning and teacher beliefs about pedagogy. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL. Brooks, J. G. ve Brooks, M. G. (1999). In Search Of Understanding The Case For Constructivist Classrooms. USA: ASCD. Brownlee, J. (2004). Teacher education students’ epistemological beliefs: developing a relational model of teaching. Research in Education, 72, 117. Brownlee, J. (2001). Epistemological beliefs in pre-service teacher education students. Higher Education Research & Development, 20 (3), 281-291. Brownlee, J., Purdie, N. & Boulton-Lewis, G. (2001). Changing epistemological beliefs in pre-service teacher education students. Teaching in Higher Education, 6(2), 247-268. Cano, F. (2005). Epistemological beliefs and approaches to learning: Their change through secondary school and their influence on academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75 (2), 203221. Chan, K. W., & Elliott, R. G. (2002). Exploratory study of Hong Kong teacher education students’ epistemological beliefs: Cultural perspectives and implications on beliefs research. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 27 (3), 392-414. DeBacker, T. K., & Crowson, H. M. (2006). Influences on cognitive engagement : Epistemological beliefs and need for closure. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 535-551. Demirel, Ö. (2006). Kuramdan Uygulamaya Eğitimde Program Geliştirme. (9. Baskı) Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık. Deryakulu, D. (2004). Epistemolojik inançlar. İçinde: Kuzgun, Y. & Deryakulu, D. (Eds.), Eğitimde Bireysel Farklılıklar. (ss. 259-287). Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Gagnon, G. W. & Collay, M. (2001). Designing for Learning: Six Elements in Constructivist Classrooms. California: Corwin Press, Inc. 794 Developing Prospective Teachers’ Epistemological Beliefs Gill, M. G.; Ashton, P. T. & Algine, J. (2004). Changing preservice teachers’ epistemological beliefs about teaching and learning in mathematics: An intervention study. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29, 164-185. Hofer, B. K. (2004). Exploring the dimensions of personal epistemology in differing classroom contexts: student interpretations during the first year of college. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29 (2), 129-163. Howard, B. C., McGee, S., Schwartz, N. & Purcell, S. (2000). The experience of constructivism: Transforming teacher epistemology. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 32(4), 455-465. Nussbaum, E.M. & Bendixen, L.D. (2003). Approaching and avoiding arguments: The role of epistemological beliefs, need for cognition, and extraverted personality traits. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28, 573-595. Öngen, D. (2003). epistemolojik inançlar ile problem çözme stratejileri arasındaki ilişkiler: Eğitim Fakültesi Öğrencileri üzerinde Bir Çalışma. Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 13, 155-162. Schommer, M. (1990). Effects of beliefs about the nature of knowledge on comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82 (3), 498–504. Schommer-Aikins, M. (2004). Explaining the epistemological belief system: introducing the embedded systemic model and coordinated research approach. Educational Psychologist, 39 (1), 19-29. Schreiber, J. B., & Shinn, D. (2003). Epistemological beliefs of community college students and their learning processes. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 27, 699–709. Senemoğlu, N. (2007). Gelişim Öğrenme ve Öğretim: Kuramdan Uygulamaya. Ankara: Gönül Yayıncılık. Valanides, N. ve Angeli, C. (2005). Effects of instruction on changes in epistemological beliefs. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30, 314330. Yaşar, Ş. (1998). Yapısalcı Kuram ve Öğrenme-Öğretme Süreci. Anadolu Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 8(1-2), 68-75. Emotional Education – A Challenge for Teachers Training Aurora Adina Ignat, “Stefan cel Mare” University – Romania Abstract The emotional education points out the teaching and learning of those abilities and values which make the base for the emotional competences development. The main challenge in this area is how to train the teachers in order to be able to address the emotional needs of the students, in order to provide a safe environment for the personal development of the children. The teachers themselves need to develop their inner strengths, their authenticity and personal congruence for a better pedagogical approach which is focused on the emotional issues of the students. Our paper intends to promote a curriculum proposal for in-service teachers` training as a way for enhancing the pedagogical abilities. We try to figure out a specific way for developing the competences regarding the identification and nurturing the social and emotional abilities of the students as a useful prerequisite for social integration Key words: Emotional education, teacher training Why Emotional Education in the School Context? What Is Emotional Education? It is well known now in the world that the social and emotional competences bring out more productivity and efficiency in personal and professional life, it contributes to a better and full of sense life. There are numberless voices which sustain these ideas (Goleman, 1995, 1997, 2008, Elias, M. J,Tobias, Friedlander 2002, 2003, Elias and Weissberg, 2000, Graczyk, Weissberg, Payton, Elias, Greenberg şi Zins, 2003, Bisquerra, 2000, 2002, CASEL, Consortium on the School-Based Promotion of Social Competence, 1994); the world has lots of educational programs focused on the social-emotional development needs. 796 Emotional Education – A Challenge for Teachers Training UNESCO in cooperation with The International Bureau for Education and International Academy of Education sustain the programs of social and emotional learning, considering it as basis for getting success in school and life, regardless of geographic are or the social and cultural characteristics. This kind of program enhance the academic learning results and helps the youngsters to get the sense of responsibility and caring for the personal and the other’s wellbeing. The school, as a traditional institution has as main mission the education, it is focused on the cognitive learning as the essential way of promoting the individual development - so we could tell that, at least cognitively the individual develops his/her potential. Of course, within the school the pupil will participate at lots of other activities which will contribute to his/her moral, aesthetical, physical development. But the human being is not „ a cognitive device” who acquires and proceeds the information, the human being has an intuitive, emotional dimension, which being stimulated will assure the functional integration within the world. So, we could conclude that the child need to be integrated in educational settings which facilitates the access to his/her own personal resources, develops it and make him emotionally and socially competent. The school life is saturated in emotionality through the interpersonal relationship enclosed into teaching and learning process: emotions integrated to motivation, to participation and involvement, emotions of the school climate; negative emotions related to the school failure, which could be derived from some deficiencies and emotional immaturity. The teachers need to focus equally on the learning objectives which describe the emotional growth and not only on the cognitive ones; the school context, the learning frames are full of interpersonal relationships and affective contents transfers; the school environment could offer the opportunities for negative affectivity expression (the school failure, the conflicts between students or between students and teachers) - this negative affect should be managed and transformed into a resource for social-emotional development; the teachers need to find the most efficient strategies in order to actively involve all the students in the learning activities. The teachers, more sensitive to the emotional needs of the children, will create the situations to meet the children’s need of getting self-knowledge, emotional awareness, emotional self-regulation, social awareness and interpersonal management. Nowadays it is obvious a rejecting attitude towards the school from the students point of view, and this pessimistic orientation toward the schooling could be over passed through an educational offer focused on the emotional dimension, emotional sensitivity of the child. This kind of offer could enable the child to face self-confidently the challenges from school life. This offer could be Aurora Adina Ignat 797 the emotional education, which could be done implicitly, through a warm and supportive relationship within the classroom, or explicitly, through an educational program for social and emotional development. The social and emotional competence could be described by: the oneself emotions identification capacity, personal emotional management, personal responsibility, acknowledge the personal strengths, empathy, tolerance with diversity, self respect and respect for others, responsible decision making, problem solving ability, assertive communication ability, positive interrelation capacity. The emotional education encompasses the teaching and learning processes of the abilities and values which stands for the developing the emotional competences (it is about not only the learning within the classroom, but also the more secure, participative and responsive environment, including the parents` education). The emotional education sustain the professional development need of the teachers in order to provide a healthy environment for children social and emotional development and to facilitate the social-emotional learning. The Romanian framework for professional development of teachers through continuous training proposes as one of the curricula dimensions the Rationale Emotive Education, so we could say that there is an educational setting regarding this issue of pointing out the emotional needs of the learners. The Emotional Education (EE) is an educative, continuous and permanent process, focused on the enhancing the emotional competences as essential elements for holistic development of the person in order to enable him for the life. In European literature it appears as being a non-specific prevention form with positive effects for violence, drug abuse, stress or depressive disorders prevention (Bisquerra, 2005). The final goal of the EE is personal and social wellbeing growth. The emotional education give a response to a social need which is not enough satisfied through the formal education and intends to enhance the human development. This education helps to overtake the emotional barriers (that would interfere with inner life and could cause academic failure); it creates a secure environment (that would stimulate the students to choose the school); it stimulates the active participation of every children within the school activities. Social and Emotional Learning The hard core of the emotional education is social and emotional learning. Lately, beginning with the end of the century, it is obvious a more and more intense preoccupation for the successful academic learning and for the active citizen integration. The researches show that the emotional wellbeing is more 798 Emotional Education – A Challenge for Teachers Training predictive than the academic tests results for the school achievement and for the later professional and personal life satisfaction (Goleman, 1995, apud Cohen, 1999). Jonathan Cohen (1999) presents the social-emotional learning as a new concept which denominates a tradition „started 3000 years ago”, because he found that the teachers from all times had understood that they could not separate the emotional life and the academic achievement regardless the field. Last years, the social-emotional learning requires to be recognized as a learning form. The outcome of the social-emotional learning is the development of the emotional and social competences which take the form of „the self-reflective capacities and the ability to recognize what others are thinking and feeling provide the foundation for children to understand, manage, and express the emotional and social aspects of life”(Cohen, 1999, p.11) The author agrees that social and emotional competences define the human capacity to solve social and emotional problems and/or to make something useful that is valued in one or more cultures. „These competencies allow us to modulate emotions, to solve social problems creatively, to be effective leaders or collaborators, to be assertive and responsible, or to be able to ask evocative emotional and/or social questions that lead to new learning.”(J. Cohen, 1999) In the most simple presentation the social-emotional learning is the capacity to recognize and control emotions, to solve problems efficiently, and to establish positive relationships with others - so that the objective of the social-emotional learning represents a mixture of behaviours, cognitions and emotions. The CASEL (Centre for Academic and Social-Emotional Learning) (apud Zins&Elias, 2006) considers this type of learning as a process of acquisition and efficient applying of the knowledge, attitudes and abilities useful for recognizing and controlling the emotions; useful for developing the caring and compassion for others; for responsible decision making; for building positive relationships; for coping the difficult, challenging situation. From CASEL point of view the key components of the social-emotional learning are the five competencies that are developed, trained, and enhanced through SEL programs: self awareness (identification and recognizing of personal emotions, recognizing personal strengths and others, self-efficacy, self-confidence); social awareness (empathy, respect for others); responsible decisions making(evaluation and reflection, personal and ethical responsibility); self-management (impulse control, stress management, establishing goals, motivation, perseverance); relation abilities (cooperation, asking and giving help, communication) Emotional Education Curriculum for Teachers Training Within the literature in the field (Cohen, 1999) it is said that there are mainly two different ways of developing emotional competencies in school: by an Aurora Adina Ignat 799 direct intervention within the curricula or by an indirect approach, through implementing elements of emotional education during the classes. We propose a curricula frame for developing the emotional abilities of the teachers in order to meet the emotional and social needs of their students during their practice, both through an explicitly Emotional Education Program and through an implicitly approach within the school environment. The teacher training in emotional education requires first a personal approach of their social and emotional qualities, a personal analysis, and we don’t know how many teachers are ready to look into themselves before to work with others. That could be challenging, that is why it is necessary a wellrounded curriculum and very good trainers. The curriculum of Emotional Education has the main goal to provide a setting for development the competencies of identification and cultivating the social-emotional abilities of the students in order to integrate harmoniously within the society The main objectives are to be: (1) the development of the emotional competences of the learners; (2) the information regarding the specific of the emotional education within the school; (3) the acquiring the knowledge regarding the conceptual frame of the emotional education; (4) the development the abilities for designing the emotional education activities; (5) the understanding of the children’s social and emotional developmental needs; (6) the development the professional abilities for intervention in order to sustain the students` social and emotional growth;(7) the using the specific emotional education methodology within school activities. The competences the teachers are about to acquire after the involvement into the emotional education in-service training program will be: Methodological competences: designing an psycho-pedagogical intervention plan for the students` emotional development; using the elements of emotional education in the school activities; the availability for re-configuration of the personal pedagogical intervention through introducing the innovative elements of the emotional education; using the elements of educational context for promoting the emotional education activities; creative involvement in the designing the specific emotional educational exercises; Communication and relation competencies: emotional communication; assertive communication; establishing efficient relationship ; conflict resolution through the I message, or the negotiation and mediation techniques; proper attitude for promoting cooperation within classroom; efficient communication within the partnership school – family – community; Psycho-social competencies: emotional competencies (emotional awareness, appropriate emotional expression, emotional management, self-motivation); using the techniques for knowing and activating the students during the lessons; flexible adjustment at the continuously changing 800 Emotional Education – A Challenge for Teachers Training social context; Career management competencies: an open and reflexive attitude toward the personal professional development and personal professional experience; the capacity for identification within the personal career pathway the strengths and weaknesses, the opportunities and the threats in order to promote a better career plan. The strategies used in providing a good understanding of the specific of EE will be mostly experiential, so that the teachers could live themselves an experience, then reflect about it, and after conceptualize it and putting it in action or in another setting. Also the cooperation learning strategies will be useful, because some of the experience require an interpersonal approach. The evaluation of the developed competences will be done using the learning portfolio and the teachers will present it and discuss it with their colleagues in the evaluation session. We propose a framework for developing the specific EE curriculum through five learning units: Unit Emotional Education – conceptual framework Goals The understanding of the role of the emotional education within the present social and educational context Operational objectives Contents To define the emotional education concept; To identify the main theoretical orientation from the emotional education evolution; To recognize the finalities of the EE; To operate with the specific methodology of the EE; To analyze the specific evaluation tools of the EE; The affective life and education. Emotional Education – antecedents, theoretical benchmarks and conceptual framework The EE finalities The EE methodology The evaluation of the EE activities Applications: Specific objectives for EE EE Methodology Evaluation tools for EE 801 Aurora Adina Ignat Unit Goals Operational objectives Contents Social and emotional development of the child Knowing and understanding the specific issues of social and emotional development within ontogenesis To define the concepts: emotional development and social development; To identify the main dimensions of the emotional competence; To identify the main dimensions of the social competence To recognize the usefulness of the concepts emotional intelligence, emotional competence, social intelligence, social competence within the academic life The emotional and social development in the life span Emotional Intelligence Social Intelligence Applications: Emotional competence Social Competence Emotional Education for Personal Development Understanding the role of the emotional education in the personal development To recognize the specific areas of personal development; To design educational activities for development of the self-esteem, assertivity; To identify ways for development of the emotional vocabulary; To apply the mediation as a conflict resolution strategy; To use the emotional regulation techniques EE for personal development: self-esteem, self-efficacy, resilience, asertivity Applications: Emotional awarenessemotions vocabulary Emotional communication Conflict resolution Emotional management – Emotional regulation strategies Emotional Education – primary prevention modality Understanding the role of EE in the school culture development To recognize the role of emotion in social life To develop functional preventing stress and violence strategies Primary Prevention strategies in school Applications: Emotions and interpersonal relationships Stress and violence prevention strategies Designing the emotional education activities Understanding of the EE activities design specific To define the specific objectives for EE; To create learning situation to meet the EE finalities; To identify proper EE exercises for the age of children;To use the experiential learning techniques;To apply the evaluation tools for EE Designing the EE activities for preschool/primary/secondary/h igh school Applications: Working strategies for EE Emotional education will help teachers to be more in contact with their inner self and strengths, to make them aware of their own sensitivity and so to be 802 Emotional Education – A Challenge for Teachers Training more aware of their students sensitivities and emotional needs. Emotional Education could empower the school approach so that the educational ideal would be more close to be fulfilled. Conclusions There is a tremendous need to address the children social and emotional developmental needs within school; The teachers need to be aware of their role as educators of both „minds and hearts”; The zeitgeist tells that emotional issues are concerning the practitioners and researchers in the field of psychology, positive psychology, educational psychology, education; A curriculum of emotional education should encompasses the basic elements of social and emotional development, of social and emotional intelligence and competence; The teacher should know some strategies to develop emotional competencies of the students, so they need to operate with specific methodology, to be creative and to make valuable choices in terms of exercises, case studies; The emotional education could be a challenge for teachers because it put them face to face with their own inner strengths and weaknesses make them to look themselves first, recognizing their own emotional and social competence level, and after make them work with children hearts. References Bisquerra, Rafel. (2002), La competencia emocional. in M. Alvarez şi R. Bisquerra, Manual de orientacion y tutoria, p.144/69-144/83, Barcelona, Praxis Bisquerra, Rafael. (2005), Educacion emocional y bienstar, Bilbao, RGM. S.A. Cohen, Jonathan. (1999) Educating Minds and Hearts. Social and Emotional Learning and the Passage into Adolescence. , New York, Teachers College Press. Elias, J. M. 2003, Academic and Social -Emotional Learning, UNESCO, Educational Practices Series 11, www.ibe.unesco.org Elias, Maurice şi Weissberg, Roger. (2000) Primary Prevention: Educational Approaches to Enhance Social and Emotional Learning in Journal of School Health, vol 70, no.5, p.186 – 190 Graczyk, P. A., Weissberg, R. P., Payton, J. W., Elias, M. J., Greenberg, M. T., y Zins, J. E. (2000). Criteria for Evaluating the Quality of School-Based Aurora Adina Ignat 803 Social and Emotional Learning Programs. En R. Bar-On y J. D. A. Parker, The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence. Theory, Development, Assessment, and Application at Home, School, and in the Workplace (pp. 391-410). San Francisco, Ca: Jossey-Bass Zins, J. E. and Elias, M. E. (2006) Social and Emotional Learning in Bear, G. G. and Minke, K.M. (ed) Children’s Need III, National Association of School Psychologists, p.1 – 13 www.casel.org Further Education of Teachers in Sarajevo Canton Karmelita Pjanic, University of Sarajevo - Bosnia and Herzegovina Abstract The purpose of this paper is to point out the importance of further education in professionalization of teaching and teacher. In the educational system in Bosnia Herzegovina, word teacher is particularly used for persons conducting the whole teaching process in grades 1 – 4 of primary school. Concerning the obtained degree level, there are three categories of teachers working in primary school classrooms in B&H: - teachers with secondary school (vocational school for teachers) degree, - teachers with two years university degree, - teachers with four years university degree. In Sarajevo Canton, there are projects of further education of teachers who do not have four year university degree. The project “Further education of teachers” involves candidates with secondary school degree and more than twenty years of teaching practice. As the majority of these candidates are near retirement, specific feature of this project is making candidates capable for lifelong learning. The project started in 2006. and is finishing in 2008. Further education of teachers with two year university degree and less than twenty years of teaching practice is conducted systematically at Pedagogical Academy since 1999/2000 academic year. It is popularly called Study Extension. Candidates who successfully finish this two year program and conduct research in primary school classrooms are rewarded with four year university degree. Key words: Further education, teacher, professionalization Successful functioning of primary education, especially lower grades of primary school, considering psycho-physical characteristics of pupils, is related mostly with role and quality of professional competences of teachers. The teacher’s role in the society in the past, but nevertheless nowadays is considered as very important. However, significant change have been occurred related to teacher’s professional role in the school, as well as the change of school itself, 806 Further Education of Teachers in Sarajevo Canton including the changes in content and curriculum, methodology of teaching and moral aspects of education. Jankovic and Ilic (2006.) point out the major problems that teachers face nowadays, some of them are following: statistics indicates that 25% of pupils every year have some kind of problems related to learning process, spreading of system of unacceptable behavior and unacceptable moral tendencies, disintegration of the families and disturbed relations within the families, implementation of new educational techniques. In general, school is changeling its physiognomy by approaching new levels of social, cultural, political and pedagogical requirements of society. Upgrading the initial and in-service training of teachers and trainers so that their skills respond both to the changes in society and expectations, and to the varied groups involved (all ages of young people in initial education and training, and a wide spectrum of ages of adults; people with specific learning difficulties, and with personal or societal difficulties; etc.) is a major challenge to the education systems over the next 10 years. The skills of teachers and trainers are the key to the motivation of learners and to their success. Subjects of educational policy should recognize the importance of in-service education designed to secure a systematic improvement of the quality and content of education and of teaching techniques. Future-oriented training is now essential – the majority of teachers qualified 25 years ago or more, and the upgrading of their skills has in many cases not kept pace with change. Equally, the role of teachers has changed – they are no longer the unique source of knowledge, which they impart to a respectful audience; today they function more as tutors guiding learners as each travels a unique and individual pathway to knowledge. Education of Teachers in Canton Sarajevo The authorities and teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina are facing new challenges as well. Main question posted is how to organize initial education and further professional development of teachers which can ensure that teachers became successful in motivating their pupils to high learning achievements. According to the educational politics in Bosnia Herzegovina, educational system is decentralized, and each entity and each canton in Bosnia Herzegovina have their laws in education. It is important to note that in the educational system in Bosnia Herzegovina, word teacher is particularly used for persons conducting the whole teaching process in grades 1 – 4 of primary school. Concerning the obtained degree level, there are three categories of teachers working in primary school classrooms in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Karmelita Pjanic - 807 teachers with secondary school (vocational school for teachers) degree, teachers with two years university degree, teachers with four years university degree. Sarajevo Canton is the most populated canton in Bosnia and Herzegovina and is dealing with three categories of teachers working in lower grades of primary school. Experts and authorities in Canton Sarajevo accepted European standards of education development. Namely they point out - - high quality of educational system, request for university degree for all teachers, provide continuing studies for every teacher up to highest level and give the chance to every teacher to advance in their career. Education of teachers is multidisciplinary, and it should ensure that teachers possess knowledge in subject they will teach in classroom, pedagogy, skills to lead and support pupils, and to understand social and cultural dimensions of education. Teachers have to be responsible to every pupil; developments of teachers have to continue throughout their career. Teachers have to recognize importance of continuous development, and transfer this recognition to their pupils. Oni moraju da prepoznaju važnost neprestanog usavršavanja, i da to prenesu na svoje učenike. Teaching colleges have to expand partnership with schools in order to ensure that future teacher posses practical knowledge and skills needed for successful teaching practice. Faculty members in teaching colleges have to be in continuous connections with innovations and results of research in education in order to have proofs that those contents they present theoretically can be implemented in the practice. Educations of teachers have to be object of research. Until 1999, two categories of teachers could be find out in the classrooms in lower grades of elementary schools in Canton Sarajevo. The first, and the oldest category was consisted of teachers with vocational school degree, obtained until 1974. Majority of those teachers had huge working experience; however, they lack further education. Second category was consisted of teachers with 2 years university degree, obtained at Pedagogical Academy in Sarajevo or at similar institutions in BH. Following accepted Europeans standards on education development, authorities in Canton Sarajevo and Pedagogical Academy in Sarajevo conducted the reform of initial education of teachers in 1998/1999 by establishing 4 year university level studies for future teachers. Additionally, in 2005/2006 academic year, studying according to Bologna principles was accepted at Pedagogical Academy in Sarajevo. New curriculum 808 Further Education of Teachers in Sarajevo Canton is based on previous experiences and new requirements in education of teachers, enabling future teachers for fulfill competences for educational work in primary school, as well as integrations into European processes. The basic starting points of new curriculum result from following requirements for: - - continuation of long tradition of educational work of Pedagogical Academy in Sarajevo since 1945; innovations according to familiar curriculums in Europe, in accordance with European and world standards of contemporary education that acknowledge quality factors , new evaluation and mobility of students and employment; fulfilling contemporary requirements in pre-service education of teachers with quality in educational competences in primary school; regulation of problem of deficiency of teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Basic studies are divided to eight semesters, and are consisted of 29 compulsory courses, and 4 out of 15 elective courses. Compulsory courses are divided into three categories: - general courses, including philosophy and foreign language specialized subject oriented courses, including Bosnian language, mathematics, psychology, didactics, etc - methodology of teaching contents included in lower grades of primary school, for example, methodology of teaching mathematics, methodology of teaching Bosnian language etc. The overview of number of courses through semesters and number of hours of mandatory practice in the primary school classrooms is given in the Table 1 (Curriculum of undergraduate studies, Pedagogical Academy in Sarajevo 2004). Table 1: Number of courses and practice hour through semesters Semester 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Number of general courses 2 1 2 2 - - - - Number of specialized courses 5 5 5 6 1 1 2 - Number of elective courses 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Number of methodology courses - - - - 6 6 6 7 Weekly hours of practice - 2 - 2 1 9 8 9 Supposed outcomes of new curriculum are: Karmelita Pjanic - 809 enabling students for realization of contents included in lower grades of primary school; compatibility of curriculum with general requirements of education in lower grades of primary school; theoretical and practical preparation for permanent development and its promotion among parents, pupils and members of local society; mastering approach to school curriculum, organization and evaluation of educational work; emphasizing pre-service teacher practice in classroom; encouraging different options of studying, for example, additional studies of deficit subjects in higher grades of primary school; enabling in usage of new educational and informational technologies; implementation of interdisciplinary contents, inclusion of children with special needs in the classrooms, work with multicultural groups. Of great importance is fact that new curriculum recognize that pre-service teachers have to learn and accept fact that their education will not stop when they obtain diploma. Permanent further education has to be in the focus of every teacher, and teacher has to ask for guidance in this process from school authorities, from university and government. The change in the nature of work and of the availability of information means that a continuing appetite for learning and for information is crucial for individuals as well as for society and the economy. Further Education of Teachers in Canton Sarajevo Recognizing the importance of further education of teachers and taking into account new legislative in education that prescribes that teachers should have four years university degree, the project of further education for teachers who have 2 years university degree was initialized in 1998/1999 academic year. This project, popularly called Study Extensions, is conducted systematically at Pedagogical Academy since 1999/2000 academic year, and involves in-service teachers who have two year university degree and less than twenty years of teaching practice. Candidates who successfully finish this two year program, and conduct research in primary school classrooms are rewarded with four year university degree. Two year Study Extensions last for four semesters within in-service teachers involves into 22 courses (Table 2), (NPP, 1998.). 810 Further Education of Teachers in Sarajevo Canton Table 2: Distribution of courses of Studies extensions through semesters Methodology courses Specialised courses Courses Distribution of the courses through semesters 1 2 3 4 Philosophy 2+1 1+1 - - English language 1+2 1+2 1+2 1+2 Bosnian/Croatian Serbian language 2+1 1+1 - - Literature 2+1 1+1 - - Speach culture 1+1 1+2 - - Mathematics 2+1 1+1 - - Interdisciplinary seminar in pedagogy and psychology 1+1 1+1 - - Psychology of education 2+1 2+1 - - Didactics 2+1 1+0 - - Informatics 1+2 1+2 - - Ethics 2+1 2+1 - - Methodology of research in education 2+1 2+1 - - Sociology of education - - 1+1 1+1 Special pedagogy - - 2+1 2+1 Basics of educational technology - - 1+2 1+2 Methodology of teaching B/C/S language - 1+1 1+2+1 1+2+1 Methodology of teaching mathematics - 1+1 1+2+1 1+2+1 Methodology of teaching science - 1+1 1+2+1 1+2+1 Music with methodology of teaching - - 1+1+1 1+1+1 Art with methodology of teaching - - 1+1+1 1+1+1 Sport activities with methodology of teaching - - 1+1+1 1+1+1 Methodology of extra curriculum activities 1+1 1+1+1 - - 30 30 23 TOTAL HOURS PER WEEK 23 Table 2. shows recommended numbers of hours of lectures + exercises + professional practice through a week. Concerning the amount and complexity of work of in-service teachers in primary school, lectures are organised on weekends and each academic year faculty members decide about the number of hours of lectures and exercises for every course. Rest of recommended course hours are organised as mentorship. The project has been warmly accepted by inservice teachers, and is supported in greater or less measure by primary schools managements. 811 Karmelita Pjanic Since the its establishment, 384 in-service teachers have been involved to Study Extensions and until the july of 2008, 160 of those were rewarded with four year university degree (Table 3). Table 3: Numbers of candidates involved into Study extensions and number of those that complete studies Academic year Number of candidates that join program Number of candidates rewarded by university degree 1998/1999 59 - 1999/2000 24 - 2000/2001 22 - 2001/2002 35 15 2002/2003 20 22 2003/2004 23 26 2004/2005 72 3 2005/2006 59 18 2006/2007 41 31 2007/2008 29 45 Realising that Study Extensions are accepted among in-service teachers with two year university degree, Ministry of Education, Science and Culture and Pedagogical Academy proposed in 2006. new project. The project “Further education of teachers” involves candidates with vocational school degree and more than twenty years of teaching practice. As the majority of these candidates are near retirement, specific feature of this project is making candidates capable for lifelong learning. The project started in 2006. and is finishing in 2008. The project offered 16 courses designed to update candidates with new results in research in education, new methodology and new technologies in teaching. List of courses is given in the Table 4 (NPP, 2006.). 812 Further Education of Teachers in Sarajevo Canton Table 4: Courses in the project “Further education of teachers” with number of lectures and exercises in each semester course Hours per week in semester 1.sem 2.sem 3.sem 4.sem Sociology 2+0 2+0 - - Foreign language 1+1 1+1 1+1 1+1 Pedagogy 3+1 3+1 - - Psychology 2+1 - - - - 2+1 - - Development psychology B/C/S language 1+2 1+2 - - Speach culture 1+2 1+2 - - Literature for children 2+1 2+1 - - Basis of mathematics 2+2 2+2 - - - - 1+1 1+1 Pedagogy in primary education Methodology of teaching music 1+1 1+1 1+1 1+1 Methodology of teaching atrs 1+1 1+1 1+1 1+1 Methodology of teaching sport activities 1+1 1+1 1+1 1+1 Methodology of teaching B/C/S language - - 4+4 4+4 Methodology of teaching mathematics - - 3+3 3+3 Methodology of teaching science - - 3+3 3+3 Basic Competences of Teachers The initial teacher studies and projects designed for in-service teachers should ensure that candidates are capable for effective work within three areas: - - Usage of contemporary technology, information and knowledge. Teachers have to be in pace with new technologies, research, analysis. They should use their pedagogical skills to help pupils to build their intellectual freedom, become responsible and be able to make choices on their own. Those skills open possibilities in innovation and creativity. Practical and theoretical knowledge of teachers have to be complementary, namely, practical knowledge has to be illustrated and encouraged by personal experiences. Cooperation with pupils, teachers and other partners in education. Teachers have to be qualified to work with pupils as individuals and to 813 Karmelita Pjanic - support them in their development. Also, teachers have to prepare pupils for cooperation within society. Work with and in society, on local, regional and global level. Teachers should prepare pupils for lifelong learning. They should be aware that good and quality education includes preparation of pupils for continuous learning and mastering in their future fields. Recommendations for In-Service Education of Teachers The well conducted selection of candidates and well concepted, organized and conducted initial education results with qualified and professional teacher. However, it is almost impossible to be successful in any profession without permanent training and learning. Certainly that this applies to teacher profession. For many reasons it is necessary that the process of permanent training of teachers is well planed, offers adequate contents for teachers, and is well conducted, taking care on teachers previous experiences, knowledge and skills (Laketa, 2007.). Taking into account remarks on pre-service teacher education and further education of teachers conducted in Canton Sarajevo, it can be concluded that the importance of further education of teachers and their professioanalization have been recognized in Canton Sarajevo. Major step forward is establishment of postgraduate studies at Pedagogical Academy, which will reward candidates with master degree in education. Never the less, it is important to improve system of informal continuous training, usually called in-service education for teachers and to involve all three categories of teachers into system. At present in-service education for teachers does not completely exist as system, rather it is sequence of insufficient and discontinued educational activities. In order to improve this situation, the model of strategic management of in-service education of teachers can be used (Table 5) (Alibabic, Ovesni, 2005.). Table 5: Steps in strategic management and andragogical activities Steps in strategic management Andragogical activities Environment analysis Examination and establishment of educational needs and factors required for their fulfillment Strategy formulation Planning of education Strategy implementation Programming and organization Strategy ccontrol and evaluation Control and evaluation of all stages Finally, emphasis should be on motivation of in-service teachers to become involved in informal programs of education, and ensuring that this kind of education will provide opportunities for advancement in teacher career. 814 Further Education of Teachers in Sarajevo Canton References Alibabic, S. and Ovesni K. (2005), Upravljanje profesionalnim razvojem nastavnika, Inovacije u nastavi, XVIII, 2005/2, Uciteljski fakultet Beograd; Jankovic, P. and Ilic, V. (2006), Ucitelj u skoli proslosti i danas, Evropske dimenzije promena obrazovnog sistema u Srbiji, Zbornik radova / knjiga 1, Novi Sad; Laketa, N. (2007), Jedan model usavrsavanja nastavnika, Andragogija na pocetku treceg milenija, Institut za pedagogiju i andragogiju, Filozofski fakultet Beograd; Nastavni plan i program (1998.), Pedagoska akademija Sarajevo; Nastavni plan i program (2004.), Pedagoska akademija Sarajevo; Nastavni plan i program za nastavak studija na odsjeku razredna nastava (1998.), Pedagoska akademija Sarajevo; Nastavni plan i program – doedukacija ucitelja (2006.), Pedagoska akademija Sarajevo; How often do Preschool Education Teachers Use Activity Materials in Konya? Perihan Ünüvar, Kamile Özer, Selcuk University – Turkey Abstract The aim of this study is to determine how often preschool education teachers use activity materials. The sample of the study consisted of the teachers who work in preschool classes of primary schools, in independent preschool classes and in the private ones which are in city centre of Konya (in some county towns such as Selcuklu, Karatay and Meram). These teachers constitute 28% of the whole sample. In this study, the data was the result of the survey called ‘How often are activity materials used in educational institutions?’ Moreover, thanks to interviews with teachers, qualitative data was acquired. As we conclude from frequency and percentage tables which were drawn at the end of the interviews, 95% of the teachers use mostly colorful papers and pastels in terms of creativity and free time activity. Besides, watercolor and salt tile are the ones which are used very often. Clay, mud and plasticine are preferred by only half of the teachers. In this study, one can also find some facts that hand and finger puppets are at the first place among puppet show materials, shadow puppet and stick puppet are used by half of the teachers from time to time and shadow puppet and lap puppet are the ones which are almost never preferred. In terms of music, tambourine, bell and maraca (sometimes called ‘rhumba shakers’) are mostly used, seashells, rainstick and emery blocks are preferred very rarely. In terms of science and nature, the materials which are very often applied consist of educational toys as well as albums, concept maps and plants. But experimental materials such as feeding animals, microscopes and magnifiers are preferred so seldom. Key words: Preschool, activity materials, activity corners 816 How often do Preschool Education Teachers Use Activity Materials in Konya? Introduction Starting from unhatched period, the child keeps developing in a changeable way. Scientific researches made up to now show that all the children have different development stages and in these stages they show common behaviors and development characteristics (Ülgen et al. 2003). All pedagogues and psychologists agree that the early experiences of a child, the problems he faced and the content of the relations with his social environment affect his behavior, attitude and manner throughout his life and consequently, the first 5-6 years of his life have a vital importance in terms of development and mental health (Kantarcıoğlu 1998). Providing a highly-stimulating environment to the child will have a significant effect on improving his imagination capability and curiosity in his later life. Particularly, when starting to learn the language, the child’s imaginary world starts to shape more differently. Imaginary games and heroes enrich the child’s world (Çağdaş, et al. 2003). At the early period, the child’s understanding capability and related with that, his perception of the physical world is limited. As the child starts to mature and his experience about the world increases, he realizes the presence of the world. He perceives the facts step by step (Şahin, F. 2000). Increasing the child’s capability of understanding and systemizing his experiences could be done through well-organized environments. Therefore, education environment in pre-schools consists of interest sides which can support the children’s all formative capabilities and meet their requirements. These interest sides may vary among the schools, in accordance with the size and facilities of the school and the creativity of the teacher. The Problem of the Research How often are the educational materials used according to the teachers in the pre-schools of the Konya province? Sub-Problems How often do the teachers in the pre-schools in Konya city center use: 1. 2. 3. 4. the creativity and leisure-time materials puppet side materials music side materials science and nature side materials Method Survey method has been used in this research. The sample consists of 65 teachers who are randomly selected. The data are collected through the survey 817 Perihan Ünüvar, Kamile Özer called “Determining the frequency of the usage of activity material in the preschools”. The data collected through the surveys are transferred to the computer and the frequencies, percent values and the averages of each answer are calculated. The formula of 3-1/3 is applied and the value of .67 is found as to determine the intervals. According to this, the findings in the light of the sub-problems of the research are stated as: • The materials are hardly used, if the average value of the survey scores is between 1.00 – 1.66 • The materials are used occasionally if the average is between 1.67 – 2.33 • The materials are frequently used if the average is between 2.34 – 3.00 Findings and Interpretation The analysis of the research data, the findings and their interpretations are given below, sorted by the sub-problems. Sub-problem 1: How often do the teachers in the pre-schools use the creativity and leisure-time materials? The teachers’ responses about this problem are given below. Table 1: The Responses of the Teachers’ to How Often Do They Use the Creativity and Leisure-Time Activity Materials Frequently Occasionally Hardly Total x f % f % f % f % Salt ceramics 2.77 52 80 11 17 2 03 65 100 Ceramic dough 1.92 5 08 50 77 10 15 65 100 Durable ceramic dough 1.95 16 25 30 46 19 29 65 100 Paper dough 1.91 7 11 45 69 13 20 65 100 Clay and mud 1.71 5 08 36 55 24 37 65 100 Pastry dough 1.77 10 15 30 46 25 38 65 100 Water colors 2.85 55 85 10 15 0 0 65 100 Crayons 2.57 38 58 26 40 1 02 65 100 Pastels 2.95 62 95 3 5 0 0 65 Colored papers 2.95 62 95 3 5 0 0 65 100 100 It’s observed in Table 1 that the teachers frequently use salt ceramics, water colors, pastels, crayons and colored papers (Frequent = 2.34-3.00). The other materials are used occasionally (Occasionally = 1.67-2.33). Clay, mud and pastry dough are hardly used. Most of the kneading materials which have a major importance in improvement of the muscles of pre-school children are used occasionally by the teachers and they rather prefer using salt ceramics. 818 How often do Preschool Education Teachers Use Activity Materials in Konya? Sub-problem 2: How often do the teachers in the pre-schools use the puppet-side materials? The data related are given below. Table 2: The Responses of the Teachers’ to How Often Do They Use the Puppet-Side Materials xx Frequently Occasionally Hardly Total f % f % f % f % Ring puppets 2.34 29 45 29 45 7 10 65 100 Finger puppets 2.38 30 46 30 46 5 08 65 100 Fingertip puppets 2.14 18 28 38 58 9 14 65 100 Rod puppets 2.15 19 29 37 57 9 14 65 100 Stick puppets 2.32 26 40 34 52 5 08 65 100 Shadow puppets 1.85 6 09 43 66 16 25 65 100 Table puppets 2.05 15 23 38 58 12 19 65 100 Rope puppets 1.98 13 20 38 58 14 22 65 100 Hand puppets 2.52 40 62 19 29 6 09 65 100 Lap puppets 1.92 11 17 38 58 16 25 65 100 Palm puppets 2.00 14 22 37 57 14 22 65 100 It’s observed in Table 2 that the mostly used puppet type is hand puppets (64%) followed by finger puppets and ring puppets respectively. To sum up, hand puppets, finger puppets and ring puppets are the frequently used puppet types (Frequent = 2.34-3.00). It’s observed that the rest is used occasionally. The teachers reported views such as “Easy to prepare and use, that’s why I use hand puppets frequently” and “enough size for the children to see easily and simple to use therefore I frequently use hand puppets.” Sub-problem 3: How often do the teachers in the pre-schools use the music side materials? The frequency and percent values of the data related to this subproblem are given in Table 3. 819 Perihan Ünüvar, Kamile Özer Table 3: The Responses of the Teachers’ to How Often Do They Use the Music Side Materials xx Frequently Occasionally Hardly f % f % f % f Total % 100 Rhythm bud 2.35 30 46 28 43 7 11 65 Tambourine 2.51 36 55 26 40 3 05 65 100 Bell 2.46 33 51 28 43 5 08 65 100 Rattle 2.17 21 32 34 52 10 16 65 100 Bean packs 2.05 15 23 38 59 12 18 65 100 Maracas 2.45 32 49 30 46 3 05 65 100 Drum and tabor 2.29 27 42 30 46 8 12 65 100 Steel triangle 1.82 7 11 39 60 19 29 65 100 Sand papered blocks 1.52 3 05 28 43 34 52 65 100 Rain bud 1.51 6 09 21 32 38 59 65 100 Cockleshell collection 1.49 5 08 22 33 38 59 65 100 It’s observed in Table 3 that the teachers most frequently use tambourine, bell and maracas. The teachers reported views such as “There were already maracas and tambourines in the classes that I worked so far and I made the maracas by myself. I use them more frequently”. It’s also observed that the least used materials are rain rod, cockleshell collection and sandpapered blocks, respectively. Sub-problem 4: How often do the teachers in the pre-schools use the science and nature side materials? The frequency and percent values of the data related to this sub-problem are given in Table 4. Table 4: The Responses of the Teachers’ to How Often Do They Use the Science and Nature Side Materials x Albums 2.55 Frequently Occasionally Hardly Total f % f % f % f % 38 59 25 38 2 03 65 100 Educative tools 2.88 57 88 8 12 0 0 65 100 Concept Maps 2.31 25 38 35 54 5 08 65 100 Graphics 2.40 28 43 35 54 2 03 65 100 Collections 2.25 18 28 45 69 2 03 65 100 Models 2.18 17 26 43 66 5 08 65 100 Experimental materials 2.15 17 26 41 63 7 11 65 100 Plant raising 2.46 31 48 33 51 1 01 65 100 Pet raising 2.01 18 28 30 46 17 26 65 100 820 How often do Preschool Education Teachers Use Activity Materials in Konya? It’s observed that the teachers mostly prefer using educative toys in their science and nature activities (88%), followed by albums, plant raising and concept maps respectively. One of the activities not present in the pre-schools is pet raising. In group meetings, teachers reported that they do not raise pets in their classes due to their classes’ unsuitableness for a pet raising activity. Conclusions The conclusions of this research which aims to determine in which way the activity materials are acquired and how frequently they are used in the preschools of the city of Konya are discussed below. 1. Creativity and leisure time activity materials: Salt ceramics, water colors, pastels and colored papers are the most frequently used materials among these. Conversely, clay, mud and pastry dough are the least used ones. 2. Puppet side materials: According to the responses of the teachers hand puppet is the mostly used puppet type, followed by finger puppet, ring puppet and stick puppet respectively. 3. Music side materials: According to the responses of the teachers mostly use bells, tambourines and maracas in their music side activities. The least used materials include rain bud, cockleshell collection and sandpapered blocks respectively. 4. Science and nature side activities: According to the responses of the teachers, mostly use educative tools in these activities followed by plant raising, and concept maps respectively. The major activity that is not present in pre-school is pet raising. References Çağdaş,A. ve Diğerleri. (2003). Okulöncesi Eğitimde Dramatik Etkinlikler Konya:Eğitim Kitabevi,. Demiriz,S. ve Diğerleri. (2003). Okulöncesi eğitim kurumlarında Eğitim Ortamı ve Donanım Ankara :Anı Yayıncılık Dere,H.ve Ömeroğlu,E.(2001). Okulöncesi Dönemde Fen Doğa ve Matematik Çalışmaları Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık, Ersoy,Ö.(2002).Okulöncesi Dönemde Cinsel Kimlik Gelişimi, Ankara:Çağdaş Eğitim Genç,Ş. Senemoğlu,N.(2001). Okul Öncesi Eğitimi. Modül 12, Ankara:MEB Yayınevi Perihan Ünüvar, Kamile Özer 821 Hebert.E,A (1998). “Design Matters How School Environment Affects Children” Educational Lidership, September, 69-70. Kantarcıoğlu, S. (1998) .Anaokulunda Eğitim. İstanbul, Köymen,Ü.(1997)Bilişsel Gelişimde Kitaplıkların Rolü. Çukurova Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 16. Sayı. Moyer,J.(2001)The Child-Centered Kindergarten. Childhood Education, Spring, Sheets,L. VeWirkus M.(1997). Everyones’s Classroom: An Environment Designed to İnvite and facilitate Active Participation. Clossing tha Gap İnc. U.S.A. Sığırtmaç,A.(2000).Müzik Eğitiminin Okulöncesi Dönem Çocuklarının Gelişim Alanlarına Etkileri, Çukurova Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Şahin,F.(2000).Okul Öncesinde Fen Bilgisi Öğretimi ve Aktivite Örnekleri İstanbul :Ya- Pa yayınları Ülgen,G. ve Fidan,E. (2003).Çocuk Gelişimi, İstanbul. 10. baskı ., Yıldız,F.Ü. ve Şener,T. (2003).Okul Öncesi Dönemde Yaratıcılık Eğitimi Ankara :Nobel Yayınları Implementation of the Nine-Year Compulsory Primary Education in the Republic Of Macedonia Jasmina Delceva-Dizdarevik, Institute of Pedagogy – F.Y.R.O.Macedonia Abstract The subject of this work is the introduction of nine-year compulsory education and the manner of its implementation in primary schools. The notion of changes, worked out from a scientific aspect, directs attention to the manner of their implementation for a successful realization of teaching. Curriculums and teaching programs, their innovation and approaching the European standards. A great part of these innovations is imposed to the local self-management; their ability to cope with all of the financial challenges as well as the teaming of the teaching staff, which is most responsible of successful implementation of the nine-year primary education. Condition of schools, both exterior and interior. Problems arising during the realization of teaching in general. Key words: Nine-year education, changes, curriculum, teaching program, local self-management, schools, teachers, students. Introduction Economic, political, educational, as well as ecological globalization on one hand, and determination of the Republic of Macedonia for integration in the European Union on the other, represent one of the prerequisites for setting up new targets in our country in general. Common trend in developed countries is the length of the compulsory education. Therefore, responsibility of the state enlarges, especially in the field of education. It is considered that secondary education is the lower limit of education and qualification that any citizen should possess in order to participate in the social life. The length of the compulsory education depends primarily on the economic power of a state, as well as the vision of the educational policy. Of these, and many other reasons, the law in the Republic of Macedonia has laid down the nine-year primary education, with the school year 2007/08 being 824 Implementation of the Nine-Year Compulsory Primary Education transitional, so that the year before starting school has become compulsory; whereas this year it has started as an integral system in primary schools. The level of implementation of this innovation in the educational system will depend on many factors: - First and basic reason for a good implementation of the nine-year primary education is the space i.e. readiness of the school to confront all the challenges that will impose with the implementation itself. A good reason for analysis is the pedagogical preparedness of the staff, which is actually the mainstay of a good implementation. This immediately raises the question why and for what reason these two conditions are responsible for the successful realization of teaching. Why is school space a factor which influences success? The answer is simple and obvious if you visit the schools that have remained in the same condition since they were built. Classrooms, school furniture, state of libraries and fund of books available do not allow any innovation, not to mention such a radical change! Speaking about school media library or at least equipped specialized classrooms for realization of contemporary teaching imposes the conclusion that the teaching staff is capable of nothing but holding a chalk in their hands! This reform is focused towards children-students’ rights and their responsibilities in teaching and learning. Competences and responsibilities of parents, professional school service and local self-management have also been established. There should be taken care of students’ health, their reception and provision during working hours of parents. The concept of primary education, prepared by experts (external and internal) of the Ministry of education, anticipates that students should complete most of their assignments at school, in positive atmosphere and culture, whereas their free time should be spent with their peers and family. As an example of whether this ultimate experts’ written work will function, immediately appears the question of how possibly all this can fit in the oversized curriculums and teaching programs for the compulsory nine-year education. Will students finish their assignments at school; how much time will they have to socialize with their school friends, and how much time will be left for the family? How possible is it to develop positive atmosphere in the classroom, knowing that it is impossible to realize the teaching program in that period of time? In order to clear up these entire dilemmas, we should analyze in detail the structure of the new nine-year education. Structure of the Nine-Year Primary Education The concept of the nine-year primary education brings about many changes in the previous primary education. These changes apply to: Jasmina Delceva-Dizdarevik - - 825 The new structure of the time length of primary education divided into three periods: - First period - from I to III grade, - Second period - from IV to VI grade and - Third period - from VII to IX grade. Compulsory subjects from the new program. Offered elective subjects. Other elective subjects. Expanded program of primary schools - Extended stay - Whole day teaching - Reception and provision of students - Lessons for students who have learning difficulties - Supplementary teaching - Additional teaching - Extracurricular activities - School trips - Outdoor teaching. The curriculum is in accordance with the teaching programs of the European countries both in the number of subjects and lessons and in the connection of related subjects and areas. The new school, structured in this way, constantly works upon unloading the teaching programs, as well as textbooks: - Preparing development-target programs that will enable the teachers larger independence at the choice of contents, arrangement of lessons for the elaboration of the contents, as well as at the choice of teaching methods. Different teaching methods i.e. the choice of new, more contemporary ones, will allow students to participate actively in teaching and will reduce the disinterest and monotony in the lessons. - Teaching programs will enable connection between subjects and will be unloaded of unnecessary contents. In that way, classical teaching of new contents will be avoided and there will be space left for the students to do research and independently achieve certain knowledge. - The new teaching programs and the manner of studying at schools will reduce the amount of homework (in the beginning students will have to spend half an hour for doing homework, in the second period – an hour, and in the third period – mostly two hours). Homework should exclusively refer to solving different problematic situations i.e. searching for additional literature, collecting information about making the assigned projects… 826 Implementation of the Nine-Year Compulsory Primary Education - The right to elect their subjects enables the students to choose subjects that will be of the least burden, and at the same time the student will follow his/her own interests and abilities. Students should use various sources for achieving new knowledge, so that in the first period of their education they will only have textbooks in their native language, mathematics, acquainting the environment and English language. - Main Innovations in the Curriculum - - Reinforced and enlarged fund of learning the native language; Learning the English language starts in the first grade. The choice of the foreign language should be the English language because of the integration of information technology and using the Internet in the teaching, which is practically impossible without the English language knowledge; Integrated learning of related subjects – acquaintance of the environment, society, science and technique; Enlarged fund of lessons in physical and health education. (In the teaching programs 25% of the contents refer to the health education.) Reinforced studying of a second foreign language and Studying information technology as a compulsory school subject and integrating the information technology into every school subject. Education and Local Self-Management Education represents a strategic sector in the development of every society. Decentralization in education aims to improve the quality of standards in education, improve the approach to the education itself, and to raise it into an enviable academic level. The process of decentralization enables municipalities to administer the financial assets intended for education, and makes possible precise distinction between the rights and responsibilities of central and local authorities. Therefore, education becomes an important responsibility of municipalities. ‘We should do anything in our power to make our greatest value – children feel proud of their school and municipality.’- represents the motto of every mayor. The introduction of nine-year education has activated local authorities too. Every municipality in the Republic of Macedonia has started to raise funds for a successful solution of problems brought about by the innovations, and considering schools at their jurisdiction. Jasmina Delceva-Dizdarevik 827 Changes in Schools Speaking about changes in education does not only mean changes at one level, but changes at school level are also taken into consideration. Only after that we can speak about changes referring the educational results of students. Changes occurring in school, treated as an organizational system, can appear as: 1. Changes in the internal structure of a school: a) in the organization and realization of teaching and b) in the school climate and the atmosphere for work in a school: - in the material-technical conditions, - in the interpersonal relations, - in the financial resources. c) in the culture of a school. 2. Changes in the external structure of a school: a) in the environment b) in the family c) in the local community 3. Changes in the behavior of a school principle. Of all this exposed immediately arises the question of the meaning of the notion change. It means changing a state, process, content, structure, manner of work, behavior etc. There are changes in people’s - knowledge, - attitudes, - behavior. All these changes do not originate now and immediately but they take different time. It is a process, and not an event. They are most easily introduced in knowledge, followed by changes in attitudes. Structure of attitudes is different from structure of knowledge because the former possesses emotional charge; while changes in behavior take more time than those of knowledge or attitude. An educational change is said to be successful if it passes several phases: - Initiative, - Implementation and - Institutionalization. Initiative is a phase when decisions are made to be invested in the development of the work which is related to a change, and the result of a change is created through the process changing. 828 Implementation of the Nine-Year Compulsory Primary Education Implementation is a phase when the use of a change is tested, when skills and understanding are created, a result is achieved; responsibility is delegated to working groups of teachers. Institutionalization is a phase when development stops to be considered as something new, a change becomes a part of the usual changes happening in a school. Management of the changes is directly determined by the process of changes itself. Namely, if the process of changes has its own course and dynamics of realization, and is realized according to a defined plan of activities, it is clear that the management of the changes will be organized and disciplined. Staff development is also a significant segment that influences the course of the change management. If that development is on a certain level resulting with certain self-consciousness – understanding the necessity of the changes, it is clear that change management will be accompanied by no serious impacts. However, changes in education should mean easier and simpler life and work for teachers; more quality teaching; means for better work of schools in the school itself; and the term more does not always have to mean better. Previous experience through practice has proven that the principle of force should not be applied, whereas best results are achieved when there is reeducative strategy. This means disciplined and organized learning through the changes, and in the same time undertaking measures for re-education of persona-lot or its continuous and permanent improvement by using experiential methods. Experience has shown that the Republic of Macedonia has approached this process of changes unsystematically, and that teachers have entered this process partially ready, with only one-day training about the innovated teaching programs and the new programs anticipated with the introduction of the nineyear compulsory education. Difficulties have arisen with the tardiness of the new textbooks, so that teaching has been realized with a great dose of improvisation. Although certain changes, that will enable grater flexibility, have been introduced in the teaching programs, practice has shown that the programs are rigid and imposed. Upbringing and educational tasks that should be realized in the teaching do not represent anything new; they are just copied from the old teaching programs and curriculums! Of the exposed, the conclusion could be that we should be patient and wait for the results of all the introduced changes in primary education. Time will show the number and quality of the generations – victims of the changes Jasmina Delceva-Dizdarevik 829 References Primary education law. Skopje, 2007 Law of changes and additions of the primary education law. Skopje, 2007 Conception of the nine-year primary upbringing and education. Ministry of education and science, Bureau of development in education. Skopje, 2007 Law of the local self-management in the Republic of Macedonia. Skopje, 2002 National program of development in education in the Republic of Macedonia 2005 – 2015. Ministry of education and science, Bureau of development in education. Skopje, 2006 In-Service Training of Pre-School and Primary Teachers. Needs Assessment in Bukovina Region Otilia Clipa, Aurora – Adina Ignat, “Stefan cel Mare” University of Suceava – Romania Mihai Stanciu, “Ion Ionescu de la Brad” University – Romania Abstract The society development involves the development of the teachers` competences within the European educational trends. Romanian educational reform comprises many dimensions: one of them it is in-service training as a useful tool which promotes enhanced competences for the pre-school and primary teachers. In order to address the right professional development teachers` needs we intend to figure out what are the specific continuing training needs through a diagnostic study. In this research paper we intend to do a survey regarding this kind of needs of the teachers from Bukovina region. The survey is based on a questionnaire addressed to a number of teachers and students who are already enrolled in a initial and in-service training forms. This diagnosis resulted will served as a database for designing a complex inservice training program, useful to the local educational agencies. Key words: In-service training, diagnosis of needs The continuous training of the schoolteachers from the elementary school and pre- school became a necessity within a period in which the changes are so quick and when in Romania there are reforms in more of the educational structures. The continuous training in Romania is being done by the universities, The Teachers Training Centers or by different professional associations which suggest to the National Council for Adult Vocational Training, continuous training programs on different themes adjusted to the national, local and regional specific. Each of these institutions may organize such courses after 832 In-Service Training of Pre-School and Primary Teachers. Needs Assessment which the trainees can accumulate a set of special credits for the continuous training. In order to prove the necessity of such courses of continuous training we give the following reasons: 1. the connections to global changes: there are major areas, which influence education too. The new types of educations (the early education, education for values, ecological education and the civic one) tend to impose more and more their contents in the life and education of the youth. The general way of presenting the contents is also in continuous changing. There are searched inciting ways of presenting the contents, abstract theoretical notions and from here a new approach of the teaching methodology. The general finalities of the education go over refining from the informational objectives towards the attitudinal ones, the planetary conscience becoming thus an obligatory desiderate; 2. the adjustment to the needs of European training: The specialists from the training area had a series of meetings in which there had been established the E.Q.F.- The European Trainings Framework, starting from the results of the conferences organized about this theme. The document is being discussed publicly since July 2005 and wants to contribute to the harmonization and correlation of the educational and training systems getting from common objectives from the areas of the labor force training and continuous learning. EQF will make easier the transfer, transparency and training recognition – described as results of the learning, assessed and certified by a center certified at a national and regional level. That is why there had been offered a set of reference common elements (defined as common results of a eight systematized learning levels) and a set of instruments which respond to the individual needs of the citizens (the transferable credits system by the Europass and Ploteus data base which inventories the different learning opportunities at European level). This means that in the European countries it is necessary to be built a training system, in accordance with these, to acknowledge “by a certification given by a certified organization of getting to a certain level of competences in relation to the standards scheduled by EQF”. In the EQF papers training is „a formal result of an assessment and validation process, which is obtained when a competent organization establishes that a person got to results of learning according to the given standards” (2007, p. 5). We talk about respecting the standards consequently by the institution which gives these certifications. The trainings’ assessment is done within a learning program, within the initial training, on labor market, or continuous training and „ it is being ascertained the learning level which a person reached to is reaching some standards of the personal knowledge abilities, habits and competences” (Singer, M & Sarivan, L., 2006, p. 206). Also, it is required to be certified the learning Otilia Clipa, Aurora – Adina Ignat, Mihai Stanciu 833 situations which take place within the non formal and informal medium which lead to the validation of the accumulated results. It is recommended that until 2010 each member state should have a national system of trainings and till 2012 all the Europass training certificates, diplomas, and papers should include clear references about the national systems of training. For each training activity, there are different levels of the learning results which are defined as being „ what the trainee knows, understands and is able to do at graduating the training period , which are defined as knowledge, abilities, and competence”. These are detailed as it follows: • knowledge means the result of the information’s assimilation by learning, „the assembly of facts, principles, theories and practices linked by a certain area of study or work” (theoretical and/or practical); • the abilities are „abilities of applying and using knowledge in order to do work tasks and to solve problems (cognitive by the usage of logic, intuitive, creative, practical thinking which includes manual dexterity and the usage of methods, tools, instruments); • Competence is the proved ability of using knowledge, abilities and personal capacities, social and / or methodological in work or study situations in order to develop professionally and personally (described from the responsibilities and autonomy’s point of view) (2007, p. 5). In the documents that are elaborated by the UE institutions are provided directing lines which should make possible the harmonization of the educational systems from the countries which are part of it. In the European Parliament and Council Recommendation are presented the key competences which have to be formed both in the initial training and in the continuous one in order to insure the permanent education (December, 2006). These key competences are defined as a combination between information, abilities, and specific attitudes of some contexts. The key competences take into account the personal needs for the personal development, for the development of an active citizenship, social inclusion and responsible employment within the employment area. Within the reference frame there are detailed eight key competences: 9 Communication in the mother tongue; 9 Communication in the foreign languages; 9 Mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology; 9 Digital competence; 9 Learning to learn; 9 Social and civic competences; 9 Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship; 9 Cultural awareness and expression. 834 In-Service Training of Pre-School and Primary Teachers. Needs Assessment (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2006/l_394/1_39420061230en 00100018.pdf., p. 13-18, December, 2006).All these competences which should be trained by the actual European educational system can be done at the level of the general objectives, of the syllabuses or it can be adjusted to the higher education in order to form next to the cognitive acquisition, these complex abilities. We can also be study these results within the continuous training of those who graduated the initial training courses. These competences can be assessed by complementary assessment tests, because they need, in order to be assessed, a longer time period and different types of training. In order to pursue the abilities acquiring, the discussions at European level are focused on the teacher’s European portfolio, method by which teachers try to prove both within the initial training and in the continuous one that they have part of these abilities. The usage of this flexible assessment instrument gives the possibility to the European trainers to improve their abilities by courses of the universities or by activities of training of the adults education institutions or NGO’s and by theoretical and practical courses in other European states. 3. the adjustment to the national needs: The national reforms within the educational area have determined changes both in the contents destined to the continuous training as well as in their organization forms. The institutions that can organize in Romania such continuous training courses are : The Teachers Training Centers, Universities, Professional Associations from the educational area or ONG-s which have this as an objective. The programs suggested by these institutions are assessed and accredited periodically by National Council for Adult Vocational Training. The suggested curricula has within its competences obligatory courses which bring to the teachers the new things within the pedagogy, but also in optional courses which bring tasks to the diverse discoveries from the educational sciences or the fields the teachers teach in. The researches done by the scientists and experts of The Education Ministry bring in front a diagnose of the needs of teachers training. 4. the adjustment to the local needs: The local community became more and more present within the educational space. The content of in-service training programs derives also from the local peculiarity. In order to develop efficient in-service training programs, the adjustment of the contents could be done through assessing the training needs, through researching the specific characteristics of the teachers (age, geographical area, type of teaching, teachers` category and so on) This paper intends to present the results of a survey regarding some concrete issues related to the training needs of the primary and pre-school teachers from Bukovina region. The goal of the research is to make a diagnose of the in-service training needs for the primary and pre-school teachers. The aim is to survey these needs Otilia Clipa, Aurora – Adina Ignat, Mihai Stanciu 835 through some dimensions such as: in-service training statute, the perception of the proportion between initial and continuous training, the institutions in charge with training, the amount of knowledge acquired during the training, what are the training fields and how could them be organized. The research objectives are: • to survey the perception regarding the status and the necessity of the inservice training; • to identify the ideal proportion enclosed to teacher’s training; • to survey the perceptions regarding the in-service training institutions; • to compare the perceptions about the amount of knowledge gained through the initial and in-service training; • to survey the teachers` favorite form of in-service training. The Methodology The investigation is based on the method of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered to 126 subjects, graduate students of the Science of Education Faculty, the specialization The Primary and Pre-school Education. The questionnaire encompasses 10 questions, 8 of them are close-ended and 2 of them are open-ended 836 In-Service Training of Pre-School and Primary Teachers. Needs Assessment Results The in-service training statute– The most graduates think that in-service training should be compulsory (79 cumulative percent); a little part of graduates consider that training should not be compulsory and it should be at teacher’s choice. Statute compulsory compulsory, generaly less compulsory educator choice staff proposal 837 Otilia Clipa, Aurora – Adina Ignat, Mihai Stanciu Regarding the necessity of in-service training, 69% of respondents consider it very necessary and 31% consider that the continuous training is necessary. It is interesting that the other options (less necessary or not-at-all) are not chosen by the respondents, so they believe that it is important to be up-to-date with the new trends within the field. Necessity 69.05% Percent 60 40 30.95% 20 0 very necessary necessary necesar 838 In-Service Training of Pre-School and Primary Teachers. Needs Assessment The perception regarding the necessity of in-service training is quite different in terms of the teacher’s work experience. The teachers less experienced consider it as being very necessary (60%) and necessary (40%), and the more experienced teachers are, the more necessary in-service training is considered to be - so, even if they have a long experience, they still consider there are lots of things to learn, helpful for their teaching activities. Necessity of in-service training in terms of work experience 120 100 percen 80 60 25 40 75 20 0 categories of work experience 839 Otilia Clipa, Aurora – Adina Ignat, Mihai Stanciu The institutions which could give in-service courses are different perceived by the graduates: 45% consider that the Science of Education Faculty could provide also in-service training besides the initial training; 35% of graduates would like that this in-service training to be done in partnership with their schools and with the County School Inspectorate. In-service teacher training agencies Faculty of Science of Education CNFP Institute for Research in Education Teacher Training Agencies schools a mixture combination 45.24% 840 In-Service Training of Pre-School and Primary Teachers. Needs Assessment Perceptions on percent of pre-service and in-service training 60 50 Percent 40 30 58.73% 20 10 19.05% 11.90% 5.56% 4.76% 0 10% pre-service90% in-service 25% pre-service 75% in-service 50 % - 50% 75% pre-service 25% in-service 90% pre-service 10% in-service perceptions of training percent We could see that the most of the respondents choose the most efficient percent regarding the proportion between the pre-service (initial) and in-service training: that one half is provided by the initial training and half is provided by the continuous training. The pre-service training provides a basic understanding of the educational science field, and the in-service training brings new trends within psychology, pedagogy and sciences methodology, all of them being integrated into the primary and preschool education field. Conclusions These results help us to point out that the graduates` perceptions are different in terms of teacher’s work experience and in terms of their initial training. Our survey proves that in order to initiate an in-service training program it is required to search the specific training needs from the specific geographical and cultural area. References ***(2007). Cadrul European al Calificărilor valabil la adresa http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=//EP//TEXT+T A+P6-TA-2007-0463+0+DOC+XML+V0//RO#BKMD-22 Otilia Clipa, Aurora – Adina Ignat, Mihai Stanciu 841 *** (decembre, 2006). Recommendations of the European Parliaments and the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning, in Official Journal of the European Union, 2006; De Landsheere, G. şi V.(1992). L`éducation et la formation, Paris: P.U.F. Iucu, R. (2004). Formarea cadrelor didactice, sisteme, politici, strategii, Bucureşti: Humanitas Educaţional. McLean, M. (2006). Pedagogy and the University – Critical Theory and Practice, London: Ed Continuum International Publishing Group. Singer, M & Sarivan, L (coord.). (2006). Quo Vadis, Academia? Repere pentru o reformă de profunzime în învăţământul superior, Institutul de Ştiinţe ale Educaţiei, Bucureşti, Ed Sigma. In-Service Training of Teachers as a Part of Lifelong Learning in Turkey Figen Ereş, Gazi University – Turkey Ahmet Üstün, 19 Mayıs University – Turkey Abstract The politics of teacher trainings in Turkey are changed with the Republic’s reforms. The Ministry of Education arrange diverse in service trainings to develop the teachers quality. But it hasn’t enough number. This study aims to describe the views of the primary schools’ teachers about in-service trainings. The study was carried out with 180 teachers in primary schools working in the center of Amasya provinces. Data that has been acquired at the end of the research are analyzed via frequency, percentage arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t test. The main results of the study showed that primary schools’ teachers thought in-service trainings as necessary but they thought that inservice trainings practices is not effective. It was found, that there was not a significant difference between opinions of branch teachers and class teachers. Education planners should determine education necessities of teachers, arrange a favorable medium for education and control outputs of education. Key words: Class teacher, branch teacher, in service training, primary school. There is a closely relation between development level of countries and considered important education. In this era, claims and needs alter quickly, knowledge and technological products become old quickly as well. Most important factor that is necessary to develop countries is education. Education is an inalienable phenomenon. One of most important factors of this phenomenon is teacher. Changing and developments influence teachers consistently and they force teachers. Therefore teachers feel the need a in-service training. In-service training is a training which is provided to individuals who are recruited by private or legal persons in return for a certain amount of salary and aims to make them acquire the information, skills and right attitudes concerning 844 In-Service Training of Teachers as a Part of Lifelong Learning in Turkey their job (Derek and Weightman, 1991). In other words, in-service trainings are the activities which aim to increase the efficiency of the individual and the organization by improving the knowledge, skills and abilities of the individual (Morgan, 1982). In-service training is provided by both the central and local administrations (Ryan, 1987). Education institutions play a crucial role in the society. The level of effect of an education institution in the society is closely related to the operating of the education organization in accordance with social expectations (Celep vd,2000). The quality of a school is dependent on the quality of its teachers. Therefore, teachers must be educated during pre-service and they must improve themselves constantly when they are in service (Seferoğlu, 2005). In-service trainings are special kind of activities which aim to provide the knowledge and skills needed for the accomplishment of short term goals (Can, 2004). Handicaps for inservice training might be stemming from the managerial methods, educational managers and applications of the institution, qualifications and circles of those who participate in the training. In addition, the negative effect level of these handicaps on the in-service training might be considered and interpreted in different manners by the participants and managers of the training (Açıkalın, 1997). The rapid developments in science and technology affect and change the individual and social life in an intensive manner (Özyürek, 1981). Monitoring this change, learing new technologies and reflecting this on the occupational life make it essential to conduct in-service training activities (Özdemir, 1997). Today, it is not sufficient for teachers to improve their skills and knowledge in their field subjects. In addition teachers are expected to help arrange the educational environment and contribute in conducting the affairs in a harmonious manner like a group of administrators (Orey, Moore, Hardy ve Serrano, 1998). The aim of in-service training of teachers is to improve them. Improving a teacher means refining the skills concerning the act of teaching of that teacher and changing him as an individual by enabling him follow up the latest developments concerning teaching (Aydın, 1987). Besides, in-service training is not sufficient for the disclosing all the skills of the individual and canalize them. There is a constant change and improvement in the cultural, social and economic structure of the society. The harmonization of a teacher with these innovations is only enabled by education (Taymaz, 1997). There are approximately 700.000 teachers in Turkey. In-service training activities are conducted by the “Head Department of In-service Training” in central level and by National Education Directorates in local level (MEB, 2006). In-service training is arranged in accordance with the Regulations of In-Service Training and In-Service Training Centres. These Regulations determine the Figen Ereş, Ahmet Üstün 845 principles, objectives, planning, application, evaluation and management of training activities to be performed. In-service training activities were centrally planned by the Ministry of National Education until 1995, when the provincial administrations were also authorized to organize such activities locally. Provincial Directorates plan in-service training activities in conformity with the local requirements and apply them accordingly. The duration of in-service training programmes varies between three and ninety days, according to the content of the programmes. Teachers participating in in-service training activities are selected by the Ministry from among those who have submitted their applications (MEB, 2001). The in-service training plan of the ministry is composed of the following courses on educational administration, computer skills, foreign language skills, teaching methods, initial teacher training for classroom teachers, technology, special education and counseling for vocational and technical teachers, program development and educational technology (MEB, 2006). However, when researches on the in-service training of teachers are examined, we see that teachers do not benefit from these trainings sufficiently and these trainings do not pose an important effect on teachers. In Açıkalın’s research (1991), it is concluded that in-service training environments are insufficient, the needs of the participants are not met and the trainings do not meet the needs. Also Kanlı and Yağbasan (2001) found that, teachers could not make use the knowledge and skills that obtained at course, when they get back to their schools where they work. Purpose of the Study: This study aims to describe the views of the primary schools’ teachers about in-service trainings. Method The study was carried out with the descriptive research design in the model of survey. The study was carried out with the descriptive research design in the model of survey. The study was carried out with 180 teachers in primary schools working in the center of Amasya provinces. A questionnaire prepared by the researchers was sent to the primary schools teachers working in the center of Amasya. Cronbach-Alpha value for whole the scale was found to be, 85. Data that has been acquired at the end of the research are analyzed via frequency, percentage arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t test. 846 In-Service Training of Teachers as a Part of Lifelong Learning in Turkey Results and Comment Individual Features Of the respondent teachers of the survey, 64% is female, 36% is male. 9% of the teachers are 22-30 age, 14 % of the teachers are 31-40 age, 36 % of the teachers are 41-50 age and 41 % of the teachers are 51 and plus age. 89% of the teachers graduated a four years program and 89% of the teachers graduated a two years program. All of the teachers attended in service training program. Of the respondent teachers of the survey, 35% is branch teacher and 65% is class teacher. Table 1: Opinions of teachers concerning importance of in service training Clause N Χ ss t C.T. B.T. C.T. B.T. 1 3,21 3,89 1,169 1,002 5,889 2 3,43 4,07 1,170 ,951 5,614 3 117+63 =180 3,36 3,83 1,134 ,931 4,202 4 3,23 3,77 1,149 1,069 4,736 5 3,25 3,94 1,188 ,986 5,907 p .000 It is witnessed that branch teachers agree with the statements concerning the essentialness of in-service training than classroom teachers. The difference between branch teachers and classroom teachers on all statements has a meaningful level in the statistics. This finding clarifies that branch teachers consider in-service training more important than classroom teachers do. We can say that branch teachers consider their pre-service education as insufficient and therefore they need in-service training to make up for their deficiencies while classroom teachers think that their pre-service education is efficient and they are not largely in need of in-service training. Besides, some of the branch teachers have one-year intensive pedagogic formation training. The reason why branch teachers need in-service training more can be attributed to this fact. 847 Figen Ereş, Ahmet Üstün Table 2: Opinions of teachers concerning quality of in service training Clause Χ N ss t p 1,374 3,464 ,001 1,119 2,821 ,005 1,118 1,189 2,034 ,042 2,78 1,180 1,244 3,072 ,002 2,75 1,226 1,261 1,982 ,048 2,24 2,70 1,065 1,200 4,055 ,000 7 2,22 2,60 1,061 1,264 3,312 ,001 8 2,32 2,63 1,031 1,175 2,823 ,005 9 2,39 2,90 1,049 1,058 4,799 ,000 10 2,18 2,48 1,197 1,261 2,446 ,015 11 2,19 2,55 1,094 1,174 3,209 ,001 C.T. B.T. C.T. B.T. 1 2,16 2,59 1,179 2 2,15 2,48 1,141 3 2,14 2,38 2,40 2,50 6 4 5 117+63 =180 Classroom teachers responded to all the questions concerning the quality of in-service training applications as “too little”. In other words, classroom teachers found the quality of in-service training applications “very low”. Branch teachers responded five out of eleven questions as “too little” while they responded to the remaining six questions as “a little”. Accordingly, it can be said that classroom teachers find the quality of current in-service training applications “too little” while branch teachers find it “a little”. Statistically, a meaningful difference between the opinions of classroom teachers and branch teachers is observed. When this situation is considered in accordance with Table 1, we can say that the reason why classroom teachers find in-service training redundant might be attributed to the quality of the training. Table 3: Opinions of teachers concerning administrative problems of in service training Clause N 1 2 3 117+63 =180 Χ ss t p 1,346 -,113 ,910 1,248 ,812 ,417 1,162 1,147 ,252 C.T. B.T. C.T. B.T. 3,29 3,27 1,342 3,43 3,53 1,237 3,66 3,81 1,254 When an overall evaluation is made, no statistically meaningful difference between the opinions of branch teachers and classroom teachers is observed. In the survey, branch teachers and classroom teachers have responded to the question “teachers are not selected among those who are experts in their fields” 848 In-Service Training of Teachers as a Part of Lifelong Learning in Turkey as “a little” while they responded to other questions as “notably”. According to this conclusion, we can say that the teachers who participated in the survey think that the teachers of in-service trainings are selected among those who are experts in their fields. To the question “there is no in-service policy concerning the personnel”, the response of the teachers is “notably”. Judging from this finding, it can be said that both branch and classroom teachers do not appreciate in-service training policies and find them insufficient. Teachers are of the opinion that in-service training managers do not have the managerial efficiency. Recommendations The main results of the study showed that primary schools’ teachers thought in-service trainings as necessary but they thought that in-service trainings practices is not effective and qualified. It was found, that there was not a significant difference between opinions of branch teachers and class teachers. In the light of the findings acquired from the survey, the propositions below have been developed. 1. In-service trainings must be organized in accordance with the needs, desires and expectations of the managers and teachers and the participation of teachers to these activities must be encouraged. 2. The places where in-service trainings are conducted must bear the quality to meet needs of the teachers and the knowledge and skills aimed by the program must be taught by those who are experts in their fields by using methods, techniques, tools and equipments which facilitate the learning of the participants. 3. The environment required for the teachers to apply what they learned in their schools must be enabled and it must be inspected whether these applications are exercised or not. 4. The ministry must arrange an in-service training policy concerning the teachers and a planning must be conducted according to this policy. 5. In-service managers must be trained in the field of educational administration before they take office. References Açıkalın, Ş.Ş. (1991). Özel ve Kamu Kuruluşlarında Hizmetiçi Eğitimin Engelleri. H.Ü. Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. Vol:6, p.:111-119 Aydın, M. (1987). Bir Hizmetiçi Eğitim Olarak Denetim. H.Ü. Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. p.:241-249 Can, N. (2004). Öğretmenlerin Geliştirilmesi ve Etkili Öğretmen Davranışları. E. Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi Vol:16 Year: 2004/1, p.:103-119 Figen Ereş, Ahmet Üstün 849 Celep, Cevat, Tuncer Bülbül ve Binali Tunç (2000). “Aday Öğretmenlerin Adanma Odakları.” VIII. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi Bilimsel Çalışmaları. V:1, p. 569-575. Trabzon. Derek Torrington and Jane Weightman. (1991). Action Management, The Essentials. London: Ipm House Comp Roud, Wambledon p. 179. Kanlı, U. and Yağbasan, R. (2001). Fizik Öğretmenleri İçin Düzenlenen Hizmetiçi Eğitim Yaz Kursları. G.Ü. Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. Cilt:21, (3). p.: 39-46 MEB. (2006). 2007 Yılı Bütçe Raporu.Ankara:Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü Basımevi Ministry of National Education. (2001). The Turkish education system and developments in education. Turkey. International Conference on Education, 46th session, Geneva Morgan, J. E. (1982). Administrative And Supervısory Management. PrenticeHall USA, p.161. Orey, M., Moore, J., Hardy, J. & Serrano, R. (1998). Designing an electronic performance support system tool for teachers. (Online). Kaynak: http://lpsl1. coe.uga.edu/publications/eera-epss/t-toolseera. Html Özdemir, S. (1997). Her Organizasyon Hizmet içi Eğitim Yapmak Zorundadır. Milli Eğitim Dergisi. Vol.:133, p.:17-19. Özyürek, L. (1981). Öğretmenlere Yönelik Hizmet İçi Öğretim Programlarının Etkinliği.Ankara: A.Ü. Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Yayını, No: 102, Ryan, R.L. (1987). The Complete Inservice Staff Development Program. N.Y. Prentice- Hall, Inc. Englewood Clifs, Printed in USA, p. 54–55 Seferoğlu, S. S., (2004). Öğretmenlerin hizmet içi eğitiminde yeni yaklaşımlar. Akdeniz Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. Vol.:1, p.:83-95. Taymaz, H. (1997). Hizmetiçi Eğitim Kavramlar İlkeler Yöntemler. Ankara: Tapu ve Kadastro Vakfı Matbaası, p.7-8. Yalın, H. İ. (1997). Hizmet İçi Eğitim Var Olan Ya da İleride Çözülmesi Gerekecek Bir Problem İçin Yapılır. Milli Eğitim Dergisi vol:133, p.:2930 International Student Teaching: Touring the Exotic or Becoming a Teacher? A. Cendel Karaman, Middle East Technical University – Turkey Abstract While study abroad programs for all majors are widely available at universities, only limited numbers of education majors participate in these programs. Particularly, international student teaching (IST) programs are scarce. This paper explores how IST programs offer important opportunities for intercultural and professional development in teacher education. The paper also draws attention to factors that may sidetrack student teachers from achieving program objectives. The discussion is augmented by examples from empirical data drawn from longitudinal studies focusing on the developmental trajectories of a group of prospective world language teachers participating in IST programs in South America. Particularly, reflections on teaching philosophies and criticisms of different professional practices encountered abroad emerge among prevalent factors relating to professional growth during IST program experiences. Key words: International student teaching; field experiences; teacher education; intercultural development. Introduction Across borders, student mobility in higher education has been increasing and diversifying. In the last decade, the number of U.S. students participating in study abroad programs increased by 150%. Most recently, with 8.5% increase from the previous year, the number of U.S. students participating in study abroad programs reached 223,534 in 2005-2006. While 52% of students chose short term programs (typically less than 8 weeks), only 5.5% of students participated in full academic year programs, and 37% spent a semester abroad (Institute of International Education, Open Doors Report, 2007). Students majoring in education only make up 4.1% of all students studying abroad. In addition to general study abroad programs, field experiences for professional 852 International Student Teaching: Touring the Exotic or Becoming a Teacher? training have also received attention from program administrators and researchers. Recent reports on teacher education and internationalizing teacher education have pointed to the importance of prospective teachers’ preparation for cultural diversity. Cultural immersion through participation in domestic and international field experiences have been accepted as paths to the development of intercultural sensitivity (Bennet, 1993). A cross-disciplinary interest in sending college students abroad has also continued to grow. Intercultural Communication and Teacher Education Teacher educators have acknowledged of the value of fostering understandings of an interrelated global society in preparing prospective teachers (Merryfield, 2000). In recent years, given the increasingly linguistically and culturally diverse school populations, several studies have investigated how teacher education programs need to better prepare teachers with intercultural knowledge and skills (e.g., Clift & Brady, 2005; Gomez, 1993; Hollins & Guzman, 2005; Ladson-Billings, 2005; Merryfield, 2000; Stachowski & Mahan, 1998). Research in this area has primarily concentrated on studying the role of teacher education courses and domestic field experiences in such preparation. For example, Gomez (1993) drew attention to the challenges of preparing teachers for such understandings within the limited scope of courses in teacher education programs. Ladson-Billings (2005) pointed to the lack of diversity among teacher education faculty and how that may be linked to weak preparation of teachers for diversity. Some teacher educators underscored the importance of immersing prospective teachers in local school communities and communities abroad in addition to student teaching (e.g., Stachowski & Mahan, 1998). With such cultural immersion experiences, participants are expected to encounter challenges that could aid the growth of intercultural sensitivity. Background The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity maps cognitive phases one may experience in relation to personal development in varying intercultural contexts (Bennett, 1993, pp. 21-71). First, among the ethnocentric stages, at the denial stage, an individual has no recognition of “cultural differences” among people or communities. Thus, individuals or groups may choose to remain in isolation or separation from the other. Second, at the defense stage, a reaction is developed in connection with the perception that some “threatening” cultural difference exists. Third, at the minimization stage, while one accepts the existence of cultural differences he or she chooses to not explore them. Instead, there is a preference for describing shared universal qualities of human beings. A. Cendel Karaman 853 After these three phases, a second set of ethnorelative growth stages are proposed in this model. First, at the acceptance stage, one not only accepts but also respects cultural differences that may be behavioural or value based. Second, at the adaptation stage, the individual “has respect for the integrity of cultures” and develops “skills for relating to and communicating with people of other cultures” (Bennett, 1993, p. 51). Third, at the integration stage, an individual who usually has a “bicultural or multicultural” background is involved in an identity transformation through reflection. Clearly, the challenges in human communication would not end here. A different type of struggle emerges for the individual who develops ethnorelative perspectives. Such deep identity evaluation can turn individuals into “marginals” within any specific culture. In a way, the individual, who develops a super-culture through integration may face isolation among ‘insensitive’ masses (J.M. Bennett & M.J. Bennett, 2004, p. 157). How would prospective teachers experience intercultural development during a teacher education program? Recently, Curran (2006) investigated intercultural development stages prevalent within a cohort of 131 pre-service teachers at a university in the northeastern United States. While the participants primarily identified themselves with ethnorelative orientations to cultural difference, the analysis of their Intercultural Development Inventory scores revealed that the pre-service teacher group was characterized by ethnocentric orientations. Participants with experiences living abroad had slightly higher scores in the inventory. Curran (2006) suggested that, despite education on intercultural sensitivity, language education students’ scores increased very little after a year. These findings affirm that worldview transformation is a complex process which— in the scope of a teacher education program—may never actually be guaranteed (cited in Karaman & Tochon, 2007). International Student Teaching Programs In teacher education, school and community immersion experiences abroad offer important intercultural and professional development opportunities. Although the need for international partnerships in teacher education programs has been emphasized, research on international student teaching programs has been limited. Several reports describing international student teaching programs have been published in professional journals. Here, I briefly discuss a few early examples. In his brief description of University of Wisconsin-River Falls’ international student teaching program, Korsgaard (1971) stated that the student teachers found various opportunities for personal and professional development. In this program, the student teachers were placed at schools in either England, Wales, Scotland, or Ireland for a period of two months. Korsgaard identified the organizational challenge for teacher education programs as follows: 854 International Student Teaching: Touring the Exotic or Becoming a Teacher? The schools abroad are so different from American schools that no specific preparatory program is possible. Thus, the student's ability to transfer his learning to an entirely different type of situation is tested. (p. 34) Clearly, while this situation complicates program preparation, it is central to the creation of a zone for prospective teachers’ development. Describing an international program involving team teaching by U.S. prospective teachers and their Swazi hosts, Fluornoy (1993) asserted that the international student teaching program is an excellent opportunity for developing global perspectives, and underscored that program alumni are required to share their reflections on campus and local schools. Another optional international student teaching program serving elementary, early childhood, secondary, and special education pre-service teachers was found “to allow the pre-service teacher a more global perspective, by traveling, living and participating professionally in another country” (Baker, 2000, p. 3). In this program, as an addition to required student teaching in the U.S., the student teaching experience in Australia satisfies three course credits. The program evaluation revealed that pre-service teachers expanded their understandings of diversity, planning, and professionalism. Reflections on Teaching Philosophies and Criticism of Professional Practices by Student Teachers Some findings from a series of longitudinal studies focusing on the cases of four pre-service teachers enrolled at a university in Midwestern United States reveal prevalent challenges that may impede the achievement of developmental objectives in international student teaching programs. As part of their postmajor K-12 certification program, these student teachers had the option of spending one or half a semester teaching abroad. The program incorporated some international sites where English was taught as a world language and early childhood settings where participants could teach first language literacy or other subjects in the target language. The IST program of the participants in these studies involved eight weeks of student teaching at schools in Ecuador. After student teaching abroad, these participants continued their student teaching at Spanish language (L2) classrooms in Midwestern United States for the other half of the semester. This study focused on how prospective teachers participating in student teaching abroad experienced professional and personal development. Multiple interviews before, during, and after the program, and observations were the main data sources. Lexicometric analysis of the corpus and interpretive findings brought to fore several significant thought patterns that relate to the program A. Cendel Karaman 855 experiences of these prospective teachers participating in this IST program. Here, I highlight two of those. (1) There were significant occurrences of thoughts related to the construction of teaching philosophies. For example, 48% of one participant’s discourse was related to reflections on teaching philosophy. Such reflection was coupled with comparisons of educational practices. Also referred to in an earlier exploratory study by Karaman and Tochon (2007), this IST participant said: I feel like— in the United States, sometimes in language classes— we are so much focused, preoccupied with meeting standards; and you know getting through. This semester we have to get through chapter eight in the book. So, they whip through things really fast. Maybe here it’s more about learning things— very thoroughly before moving on. (p. 256) This prospective teacher’s discourse centered around her conceptions of effective teaching. The comparison of two classroom practices in two nations in the above vignette signals the journey towards becoming a teacher. Several other contextual units showed how this candidate interprets actions in her student teaching classes and how she finds meaning through the lens of her firm teaching philosophy. In addition, we find reflections on relationships with her cooperating teachers, both in the home country and abroad. (2) Criticisms of professional practices abroad signaled a shortcoming in the achievement of program objectives related to intercultural and professional development. For example, 10% of another participant’s discourse was devoted to this issue. For this participant, trips (sightseeing) seem to have been much more central to the experience abroad. This IST participant devalued the professional contributions of student teaching abroad and argued that these school-based experiences abroad had little relevance to her teaching contexts in her home country. She said: I just kind of showed up and I helped and there was that so basically, I really enjoyed being there and everything that I observed and learned culturally, but as far as like professional development, I do not think it was, it did not help me become a better teacher here... Conclusion In this paper, I have briefly discussed some considerations regarding international field experiences for pre-service teachers. While programs anticipate cultural immersion, students may have various other reasons motivating them to participate in these programs. Teacher candidates can 856 International Student Teaching: Touring the Exotic or Becoming a Teacher? approach these field experiences as opportunities of touring ‘the exotic’. The goals may be limited to seeing as much of a country as possible by taking weekend trips and taking as many pictures as possible near touristic sites listed in guidebooks. Such experience can potentially broaden one’s horizons and it should not be devalued or discouraged. As Moschous and Mihalerea (2007) remind us, learning about the history and geography of a different nation through travels to museums, natural wonders, and ancient cities could lead to important reflections on world civilizations. More research on the contributions of both school-based experiences and journeys abroad would help further explore the ecology of these programs in teacher education. How gaining understandings of a ‘different’ cultural groups relates to preparing for future teaching in culturally diverse settings continues to present a vital research agenda for educational researchers. The paths to becoming a teacher can be experienced in various field settings. Teacher educators and prospective teachers need to reflect on the nature and ‘quality’ of experiences during field experiences. Placement at a school and a community brings challenges related to entry into new cultural systems. These can be school cultures or community cultures. International field experiences for student teachers also involve additional considerations: foreignness and crosscultural encounters. When prospective teachers situate the Other as the ‘exotic’ and prioritize ‘touring’ the exotic lands during international student teaching programs, the journey of becoming a teacher with intercultural sensitivity is not likely be foregrounded. References Baker, B. R. (2000, April). Moving beyond our education community: Student teaching abroad paper presented at the annual meeting of the association for the childhood education international. . Baltimore: MD. Bennett, M. J. (1993). Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In R. Michael Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (pp. 21-71). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Bennett, J. M., & Bennett, M. J. (2004). Developing intercultural sensitivity: An integrative approach to global and domestic diversity. In Dan Landis, Janet M. Bennett, & Milton J. Bennett (Ed.), Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 147-165). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Clift, R. N., & Brady, P. (2005). Research on methods courses and field experiences studying teacher education: The report of the AERA panel on research and teacher education In M. Cochran-Smith, & K. M. A. Cendel Karaman 857 Zeichner (Eds.), (pp. 309-424). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Curran, M. (2006). Assessing pre-service teachers’ intercultural sensitivity using the IDI in teacher education. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA. Flournoy, M. A. (1993, November). Educating globally competent teachers. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the council on international educational exchange. Washington D.C. Gomez, M. L. (1993). Prospective teachers’ perspectives on teaching diverse children: A review with implications for teacher education and practice. Journal of Negro Education, 62(4), 459-474. Hollins, E., & Guzman, M. T. (2005). Research on preparing teachers for diverse populations. studying teacher education: The report of the AERA panel on research on teacher education In M. Cochran-Smith, & K. M. Zeichner (Eds.), (pp. 477-548). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Institute of International Education. (2007). Open doors report: American students studying abroad at record levels: Up 8.5% Retrieved November 16, 2007 from http://opendoors.iienetwork.org/?p=113744 Karaman, A. C., & Tochon, F. V. (2007). International student teaching in world language education: Critical criteria for global teacherhood. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 4(2-3), 237-264. Korsgaard, R. (1971). Student teaching abroad. Supervisors Quarterly, 6(2), 3234. Ladson-Billings, G. (2005). Is the team all right?:Diversity and teacher education Journal of Teacher Education, 56(3), 229-234. Merryfield, M. M. (2000). Why aren’t teachers being prepared to teach for diversity, equity, and global interconnectedness?: A study of lived experiences in the making of multicultural and global educators Teaching and Teacher Education., 16(4), 429-443. Moschous, K., & Mihalarea, V. (2007). Parting words: Facilitating intercultural communications through tourism: The example of greece. Multicultural review, 16(1), 110. Stachowski, L., & Mahan, J. M. (1998). Cross-cultural field placements: Student teachers learning from schools and communities Theory into Practice, (37), 155-162. Investigating Teacher’s Practice According To the Level of Students Savaş Baştürk, Halil İ. Taşova, Gözde Seçkin, Marmara University – Turkey Abstract New research in mathematics education deals with the complexity of the mathematics classroom. The classroom teaching situation constitutes a pertinent unit of analysis for research into the ternary didactic relationship which binds teachers, students and mathematical knowledge. The classroom is considered as a complex didactic system, which offers the researcher an opportunity to gauge the boundaries of the freedom that is left with regard to choices about the knowledge to be taught and the ways of organizing the students’ learning. We can easily say that there are many variables which influence on teacher’s practices in classroom e.g., epistemology, content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, believes about mathematics and mathematics learning of teacher and students’ mathematics level etc. So the objective of this study is to investigate teacher’s practices in classes where students’ level is different. In order to do that, one mathematics teacher was observed in a high-level and lowlevel class during one same lesson. Data were gathered from audio video-taped this two lessons. The analysis of data indicates that the level of class is very important effect on the teacher’s practices. For example, the teacher takes care of mathematical proofs of given concepts while he ignores them in low-level class. Key words: Teachers’ practice, level of student, mathematics education Introduction Recently, we have seen many researches which make description and analysis in the class about how a class organizing. These researches supply us information about factors that affect the teacher in class management and organizing.(Doyle 1996)Researches say that lessons aren't homogeneous 860 Investigating Teacher’s Practice According To the Level of Students respecting both teacher end student's activities. Besides, researches made with different theoretic standpoint about practice of teacher, explain that what are connections between student's obtaining the information and teacher's practice, factors which determine teacher and student's activities during the lesson, and these results could contribute to improve the pre- and in-service training of the teaching staff. These researches made in different standpoint show that there are many factors affecting teacher practice. Because we have considered that class level can be one of these factors, we have wanted to show by means of this study that how teacher practice and approaching the lesson are affected in different levels of classes. Methodology This is a special case research which investigates how class level affects teacher instructional application. To do this, two different level of class which are same grades were chosen and a mathematic teacher who lectures those classes. Base on mathematic teacher’s views the low level class is chosen as tenth grade equally weighted class and high level class is chosen as tenth grade arithmetic class. The determinative factor that tenth graders are chosen as sample is because that mathematic teacher lectured those classes previous year and consequently he knew them. Arithmetic class that we mention as “high level class” consists of students who are said to be involved in mathematic lessons and both theoretically and practically satisfactory in mathematics. In contrast to arithmetic class, equally weighted class which is mentioned as low level class has under satisfactory level of involvement and success. Both classes were investigated by recording one course which is 40 minutes long by video camera. Besides, one of the research members has observed qualitatively non recorded details. For both classes, the lecture scenario were interviewed and recorded with the teacher. After video and sound record was collected, they are analyzed by the qualitative method. Firstly, a general analysis was conducted and later all lectures’ content analyses were made by dividing into sessions. While lectures are divided into sessions, the completion of an activity is taken into consideration and minute/second computation is done. “Theory, examples, homework” and finally “the quality of questions” within sessions are investigated and compared. Savaş Baştürk, Halil İ. Taşova, Gözde Seçkin 861 Findings In this party we give the results of the analysis of the teacher’s discourse: General Analysis Low-Level Class After coming into the class, teacher tried to make his students be motivated to the lesson. He said the name of the topic that the students would learn in that lesson. Then he warned the students who weren’t taking notes, but most of them did not pay attention to this warning. There was too much noise in the class. The teacher began to the lesson and wrote the theorem of Carnot to the board. He repeated the parts that the students did not understand. Then he showed some examples about this theorem. To draw the attention of the students, he called some of them to the board and warned them to do the exercises on their own. Because of the fact that the students had difficulties in doing exercises requiring simple mathematical knowledge and their old knowledge were inadequate, the teacher needed to remind the topic. During solving the examples, the teacher wanted his students to put a star next to some examples to emphasize the importance of them and he said to the students to pay attention to the examples. It is observed that some students wanted to do some more examples to understand the topic better. High-Level Class After coming to the class, the teacher prepared the class physically and mentally. He cleaned the board, opened the lights. By stating that they would have a new subject, he said that they would learn “The theorem of Carnot among the specific theorems.” He began to the new subject after he made some explanations to the comments and questions of the students about the way of reading and writing the name of the theorem. After the theorem was given, proof of the theorem was made with the help of the students and some exercises were done about the topic. After the teacher gave some time to the students to make the exercises, he called some of them to the board and wanted them to do these exercise on the board. The previous knowledge of the students was reminded about some subjects. Thinking that the examples given about the subject were adequate, the students wanted to pass to the other theorems. At the end of the lesson, the teacher gave a hard question as homework to the students and gave some clues to help them solve the problem at the home. 862 Investigating Teacher’s Practice According To the Level of Students The Analysis of Content of the Lesson As the theorem of Carnot is studied in both of the class, the information about the theory is given below. Figure - 1 State a P point in the ABC triangle drawn randomly. Among the parts that the perpendicular gone down from the sides of the triangle separates, the correlation is like this; a. Comparative Analysis If we make the comparison with dividing the analysis results of high-level class and low-level class into parts, it will be easy to see how the teacher’s practice takes shape. Teacher used more effort to motivate the students in low-level class. In lowlevel class teacher warned the students to take notes, but he did not warned the students of high-level class. In hi-level class teacher wrote the topic of Carnot Theorem on the board, after that teacher was obliged to give more details about the theorems’ spelling and pronunciation by the requests. In low-level class, some of the students could not understand the theorem, because of this the oral expression of theorem was retold more than one times. In high-level class there was no need to repetition about the theorem. In each class, a triangle was sketched on the board, and teacher mentioned that, this triangle was any triangle, and the point ‘P’ was any point in the triangle (Figure-1). But in high-level class students were warned about, this point was not the junction point of the interior angle bisectors, and it was not the centre of gravity of the triangle. In low-level class, after the Carnot Theorem had given, teacher did not tell anything how the formula was obtained. But in Savaş Baştürk, Halil İ. Taşova, Gözde Seçkin 863 high-level class teacher asked a question to students how the formula was obtained, later the formula was obtained by the teacher on the board. If we talk about the exercises, it attract attention, in high-level class when teacher was writing the question on the board, he talked different things out of theorem. In low-level class when teacher was writing the question on the board, students talked each other. In low-level class, after the question had written on the board, without any respite to solve the problem by themselves, a student was stand up to the board to solve the problem, but in high-level class teacher gave time to students to solve the problem by themselves. In low-level class, the student, who stands up to the board, made lots of mistakes, because of this student completed the solution with teacher’s intervention. In high-level class teacher interfered the student at the first part of the solution then student completed the rest of solution. At that time teacher took an opportunity to be interested with the other students in the classroom. Generally in high-level class teacher did not interfere the students who solved the problem, He added some extra information about solution and told a shortcut for the solution. In low-level class, students suggested to solve more exercises, because of this teacher kept on to give examples. But in high-level class some of the students recommended to change the topic after some examples had solved. In low-level class, when some of the students did not want to stand up to board, teacher retold the oral expression, gave some clue, and emphasized the method for solution was the same method, and then a student stand up to the board. But in high-level class there was no need such an activity. In low-level class, teacher reminded the old learning more than in high-level class. In each classes the adversity degree of the questions was increasing more and more, but in lowlevel class just the numerical expressions were complicating. In high level class at beginning there was one unknown, but in the other questions there were two unknowns. While the teacher give homework to student to the high level class students, he did not give homework to low level ones. b. Comparative analysis in terms of time There is a significant difference between the two class when we compare the time belongs to divisions as can be seen in table 1 864 Investigating Teacher’s Practice According To the Level of Students Table 1: The distribution of time by section Low Level Class High Level class Preparation to class and entrance 1’ 30’’ 2’ 55’’ Explaining the theorem 2’ 35’’ 9’ 10’’ Exercises 31’ 00’’ 18’ 20’’ Homework 0’ 00’’ 3’ 05’’ As can be seen in table 1, the time spent in preparation to class is about two times more than low level class in high level class. This is because in high level class the students are curious about the theorems true reading and writing due to this they have a conversation with the teacher. Explaining the thermo is also harder in high level class as well with a great gap due to the fact that the proof is explained and the time is given to solve the theorem. Exercises take more time in low level class because of that proof is not examined, more exercises were solved. In addition, although there is no extra time given to solve this, since their mathematical abilities in calculation is poor, they completed very late. No time allotted for homework in low level class. Conclusion and Discussion In the present research, it has been observed that how a teacher practice is changing according to the student's intellectual level. Certainly there are a lot of variables to affect a teacher practice. Some of these may be emotional reasons. But we haven't taken these kinds of variables into account in this research. That’s why our findings are only limited to mathematical methods made in classrooms. These researches are considered as qualitative, that’s why we never worry about generalizing the findings. However; even if it was to be studied with only one teacher, we strongly think that it could give vital clues. In this research it has been understood that class level takes important role in a teacher practice. During the study, we understood that how it was difficult to make a study like this. Because of limited conditions, we could only observe the teacher in a subject which execution is intensive (Theorem of Carnot).We believe that if we had a chance to observe them while making an entrance to a new subject, these differences would be more and variable. Considering that teacher practice is really complex subject, these different reasons can be in a different view of respect. In this respect it can be obtained much information about what are necessary to provide teacher with in a better way in education faculty. Savaş Baştürk, Halil İ. Taşova, Gözde Seçkin 865 References Doyle, W. (1986). A method for conducting longitudinal analyses of classroom video recordings and transcripts. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 30, 213-228. Robert, A. and Rogalsky, J. (2005). A Cross-Analysis of the mathematics teacher’s activity. An example in a French 10th-grade class. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 59(1), 269-298. Escudero, I. and Sanchez, V. (2007). A mathematics teachers’ perspective and its relationship to practice. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 6, 87-106. Stodolsky, S.S. (1988). The subject matters. Classroom activity in math and social studies. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Lessons for Prospective Teachers: Moral Dilemmas Teachers Encounter in School Contexts Hanife Akar, Middle East Technical University – Turkey Yeliz Temli, İnönü University – Turkey Derya Şen, Atatürk University – Turkey Abstract Formal educational institutions play a crucial role in the intellectual, social, and moral development of students throughout their lives. In that respect, elementary school educators have an important mission in providing students with the basic skills, habits and knowledge they need to practice throughout their lives. In other words, as teacher educators, we need to be equipped with the needs of prospective teachers so that we can develop learning environments in which they can envision how they can deal with morality and moral issues in their prospective classrooms. The data of this study is drawn from a larger data set (N=771), and aims at addressing two research questions: a) How often do teachers encounter moral dilemmas in the school context; b) How do teachers define the dilemmas that they have experienced? Findings reveal that teachers found themselves trapped in moral dilemmas quite often, and criticized themselves, their colleagues, families, school administrations and the media as being the cause. The study elaborates on the moral dilemmas teachers encountered, and provides implications for teacher education. Key words: Moral education, moral dilemmas, morality, teacher education. Introduction Moral education is an inherently controversial subject. As teachers or teacher educators living in a multi-cultural nation we need to bring to light the controversies our students may experience in or out of school contexts. The need for an urgent solution to some of the society’s problems such as increased 868 Lessons for Prospective Teachers: Moral Dilemmas Teachers Encounter in School Contexts violent crime rate, suicides and drug use (Lickona, 1991), anarchy and upheavels in 1970s, lead to an agreement on the responsibility of schools on moral education. For instance, in Turkey the course called Religion and Morality (Din Kültürü ve Ahlak Bilgisi dersi) was established in 1982 after a military coupe d’état under the pretext that the youth were acting immorally because schools left their role in teaching moral values of the society they live in. Kaymakcan (2007) argues that the course curriculum established in that period has changed little over two decades. Consequently, the idea that schools are not only educational institutions but also moral institutions where moral development was supported (Cummings et al., 2001 as cited in Cummings, Harlow & Moddux, 2007). Doubtless, formal educational institutions play a major role in the intellectual, social and moral development of students’ lives (Wren, 2008). In that respect, elementary school education has an important mission to provide students with the basic skills, habits and knowledge practiced in their daily lives (Demirtaş, 1987 as cited in Algur, 2002). Indeed, moral education can affect one’s life since students will take social roles like being friends, parents (Noddings, 2006), and citizens who directly affect one’s identity besides integrity which requires being realistic and acknowledgement of rights and wrongs in one’s actions (Palmer, 1998). Some authors claim that the construction and development of individual’s values cannot be taught apart from social values (Huffman, 1994 as cited in Revell & Arthur, 2007). Some ethical concepts like justice might be taught so as to support personal identity and help students develop critical consideration on morality (Althof & Berkowitz , 2006). Teachers have various responsibilities in moral education. Encouragement of students to act in a morally acceptable way and be a good role model is teachers’ expected responsibilities (Raulo, 2000). To enhance this, teachers can provide an ethical learning environment through a hidden curriculum and with the reinforcement of the school administration (Haydon, 2004), and implement activities that reveal certain moral values (Lickona, 1997). Nevertheless, only teachers cannot be hold accountable for moral education. Other important factors like the community the students live in may affect students’ development and some controversies my raise. Similarly, those controversies my raise from the personal values the teachers have acquired and the ones that are promoted by the society the student live in. This yields the question of how teachers struggle with societal values themselves as well. Research mainly evidences that moral education is a very important issue to delve on students’ development, yet there is little evidence that reveals how teachers themselves also experience moral dilemmas in the school context they are teaching. The purpose of this study is to present data that addressed “how Hanife Akar, Yeliz Temli, Derya Şen 869 often teachers encountered moral dilemmas in the schools they teach,” and “how teachers define the dilemmas that they have experienced.” Method This study was designed to explore the moral dilemmas teachers encounter in schools in Turkey, and the data is drawn from a nation-wide survey that addressed the following questions: i) How often do you encounter moral dilemmas in the school your teach; ii) could you explain and give an example of the dilemmas that you encountered. The population of this study includes teachers who were teaching in cities in which the demographic rate was fluctuating rapidly through migration issues. The purpose was to reach multicultural cities that may represent a multiple population. The city sample was selected with reference to the dataset drawn from the Turkish Statistical Institute (TUİK, 2006). For each selected city, the school sample was selected randomly considering an equal proportion of both types of private and public schools in each city. The surveys were sent via mail to the Provincial National Education Directorates in each city, and the experts in the Directorate administered the surveys in each school, and mailed the closed envelopes back to the researchers. The surveys were administered to social studies teachers (social sciences, Turkish, Citizenship and Human Rights, and Religion and Moral Education credentials and Classroom Teachers) in each school (n=129). The participants were 771 social studies teachers who worked in 16 different cities. As for data analysis, close-ended item was analyzed through descriptive statistics. Next, qualitative responses were analyzed utilizing “general scheme guided method. The conceptual frame was determined based on the literature and content analysis. Afterwards, categories and themes were explored from the qualitative dataset. Researchers discussed some unclear expressions and opposing cases until they agreed on the meaning of the sentence to provide theoretical validity (Maxwell, 1996). As for internal validity, coherent concepts were clustered together in a meaningful frame (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Until reaching a consensus on the categories, the researchers negotiated on thematic codes. Some unexpected statements, examples and comments were argued in detail and read multiple times to catch the general idea. Results The findings of this study indicate that teachers come across moral dilemmas in their school environment (Table 1). When the teachers were asked how often they encountered moral dilemmas, almost one fifth of the teachers never encountered dilemmas, while more than one fourth (25,8%) rarely did, almost 870 Lessons for Prospective Teachers: Moral Dilemmas Teachers Encounter in School Contexts 40% (39,4) sometimes did, twelve percent did encounter often and almost 4% always encountered moral dilemmas. As for the type of dilemmas teachers encountered in school settings, they illustrated the following dilemmas they encountered: “Lack of good role model; “conflict between the moral aim of schools and the moral perception of the society;” “school culture;” “personal benefits,” and diverse opinions related to the importance of moral education.” The proceeding sections report these dilemmas respectively based on the qualitative data. Table 1: Frequency of moral dilemmas teachers encounter f % Never Rarely N=771 138 187 19,0 25,8 Sometimes 286 39,4 Occasionally 87 12,0 Always 27 3,7 Lack of Good Role Model The teachers reported being a role model for students as an important asset. They criticize that parents expect ideal behaviors from students although they do not act in an ideal way (n=3). Like parents, other adults also anticipated a standard of perfection in the child’s actions (n=1). On the other hand, teachers (n=55) created some dilemmas through acting differently from what they said. Although they did not feel reluctant to advise students with certain desirable actions, they did not show these kind of behaviors in their lives (n=20). An example of confliction reported often was “teachers recommend not to smoke, while they smoke” (n=25). Another example was about drinking alcohol and gambling. Teachers proposed not to drink or gamble and talk about the hazards of drinking or gambling (n=10). Teachers highlighted that expressions and behaviors were expected to be consistent to provide effective moral education (n=15). Therefore, teachers (n=21) questioned how to exert this type of moral behavior in the school context, or how to teach about moral values in classrooms. Another theme reported was “the way of talking about opinions.” For instance, some teachers (n=14) reported that during the classes, teachers uttered some rude words (n=14). Participants stressed that it was necessary for teachers to pay extra attention for what words they had chosen when warning students. A seventy-year experienced female classroom teacher reported the following: “Teachers advise students not to utter indelicate words to classmates, whereas when they are angry they don’t hesitate to use the words they disapprove.” The Hanife Akar, Yeliz Temli, Derya Şen 871 findings showed that the relationship between teachers and students directly affected the acquisition of moral values. Teachers argued that learning polite rules of critiquing could help educators to solve problems and eliminate replication of possible mistakes in their classrooms as well as out of the school context (n=22). Teachers should avoid using vulgar words to students, if they did not avoid these, the situation might lead to moral confusion (n=4). Another theme that emerged was criticizing persons behind their backs (n=8). Unlikely, people hesitated saying good thoughts about someone who deserved to hear good words for their good deeds and efforts (n=8). Next theme based on dilemmas that came up was that a financial breakdown in the society might lead to negative effects. Morality and economy were described to have a close relationship; and they affected each other and sometimes created conflicts (n=8). A common example provided by one participant was reported as “to support their budget,” some teachers might conduct one-to-one tutoring to their own students without ethically questioning their action. Therefore as a rolemodel, teachers are suggested to avoid this kind of unethical codes of conduct Conflict between moral aims of schools and the moral perception of the society Findings show that the difference between the values the society stressed on, and the educational institutions emphasized might result in confusion. Since there was not a common explanation or definition of “what actions are moral” and “people’s priorities are different,” a child might experience different alternatives to solve some problems (n=21). The conflict between what families taught their children and what schools emphasized created dilemmas in their minds (n=30). In addition, teachers reported that the media could have a negative influence on the moral education of students. Teachers (n=5) suggested that they should elevate some characteristics which were not desirable in a healthy society. The differences students confronted or experienced might cause a hazardous impact on the acquisition of moral values. From an individualist point of view, teachers (n=15) reported that the society itself where teachers work and the teachers’ dispositions that they brought with them might show certain differences and create certain dilemmas. Different experiences affect people’s perception of morality and the place where they were born or raised influence their perceptions. While some teachers paid attention to some values, others might disregard them (n=12) because of these reasons. Teachers (n=8) reported that in different places similar local values could be experienced that actually conflict with the dominant culture of the nation. Therefore, they complaint (n=14) that while schools struggled to teach some values because the community in which they taught might ignore the same values. For instance, five teachers reported that urban-rural differences or big and small city differences created a cultural conflict and ended in moral dilemmas in the cities they started to teach. 872 Lessons for Prospective Teachers: Moral Dilemmas Teachers Encounter in School Contexts Gender discrimination was another means that teachers (n=3) thought created moral dilemmas and unfortunately sometimes this discrimination was made by teachers (n=1). Although teachers put emphasis on gender equality and act towards them equally, parents, on the other hand were likely to create gender discrimination (n=5). For instance, an eleven-year experienced female teacher put the following: “Parents react towards seating boys and girls together on a desk.” Although participants claimed moral education as vital for a healthy and modern society, they believed their colleagues were insensitive, and that that attitude was a destructive means to the moral education of the students. Teachers (n=4) suggest that if they acted together harmoniously and were sensitive to the moral education of students, the results might be permanent and more effective. School Culture The application of school administration was described as unfair by teachers (n=11). Some participants had some concerns about equal sharing of responsibilities among teachers (n=11). Thus, teachers confronted moral dilemmas not only in the classrooms but also in the organization of the school itself. For instance, school administrators might feel closer to some teachers (n=3), and this might change their attitudes towards them. Other teachers (n=2) reported that arguments between teachers and administrators sometimes were means to undesired cases. These cases might result in disrespectful behaviors, rude actions in public, and as a result educators might become bad role models for their students. Especially, when teachers ignored the existence of students when they tried to solve their problems in front of the students thoughtlessly (n=2). Participants (n=3) think that when their colleagues try to solve their own problems, they were likely to forget about courteous behavior. For example, some teachers (n=3) reported that their colleagues exerted disrespectful behavior toward their colleagues; some (n=2) might gossip about their colleagues; and others (n=2) might lack of tolerance when they criticized themselves. Working in a trustful working environment was one of the most desired expectations by teachers. Teachers (n=12) suggested as a good role model it is better to illustrate consistent behaviors in line with other teachers’ behaviors to increase the effectiveness of education and to put strong emphasis on moral values by demonstrating similar kind of attitudes and behaviors. Thus, universal values were suggested to be a common ground in the moral education process of students. Honesty Policy Teachers reported honesty as the best policy both from their own perspective as a role model and from the students’ perspective. For instance, if the teacher Hanife Akar, Yeliz Temli, Derya Şen 873 recognized the students lied, they should not pretend they were not aware of these lies since such attitude was apt to create moral dilemmas (n=3). Grading was another indicator of just behavior. If the teachers gave high grades to motivate the students, although students did not deserve that score, it was likely to create a moral dilemma (n=2). Some behaviors observed among students were criticized by teachers and they called these kinds of behaviors as morally problematic behaviors among students that generally dealt with disrespectful attitude. Two teachers reported that students’ attitudes sometimes could be disrespectful to lower graders; and three of them reported that students’ priorities showed differences and that they might consider their own benefits as important rather than being fair. Teachers (n=5) wrote that students were aware of the importance of taking teachers’ confirmation on their behaviors to receive high grades and acceptance in the classroom, therefore, they pretended being respectful until they became teachers’ favorite. Students actions and way of speaking might be impolite (n=3) and although they knew how to act in the society, they preferred not to speak in a morally acceptable way (n=3). Data showed evidence of the adolescence period of students, and how this period might influence students’ behaviors. Because of the nature of this period, some conflicts between students’ behaviors were observed by two teachers, especially, in terms of gender discrimination. Teachers reported that since teachers and students were raised in a different era and culture; a generation gap was indispensable. In other words, while one accepted some sort of behavior as problematic the other could called it as acceptable (n=2). Personal Benefits As for moral dilemmas discussed in class were related to how individuals act immorally or prioritize their personal benefits. Teachers reported that they did not impose on certain ideas with students, rather they discussed that everybody had different priorities. People could confront some cases and they might have addressed them as morally acceptable or others as beneficial for ones own good, and might not be regarded as morally acceptable per se. Discussion topics revealed by eleven teachers were related to the following: “which one is more valuable, which one has priorities; morality or personal interest.” Likewise, social benefits and one’s own benefits were discussed and the importance of social benefits was highlighted by the four participants as a moral dilemma. Participants reported that people were very sensitive about their own rights and as a conclusion of this sensitivity, they expected others reflect on it as a proper characteristic which may contradict with human rights (n=4). Teachers (n=11) asserted that their colleagues did not utter their opinions because of pressure in 874 Lessons for Prospective Teachers: Moral Dilemmas Teachers Encounter in School Contexts the working place. In one example, a teacher reported that even most of his/her colleagues disagreed with the administrator; and preferred to remain silent and did not indicate any disapproval for their own personal benefits. As a result, teachers (n=15) suggested to avoid moral dilemmas in the school context, and built an open, honest and trustful communication among administrators, teachers, supervisors and students were regarded as essential. Thoughts on Importance of Moral Education Findings showed that teachers had different attitudes towards male and female dual relationships. Therefore, their belief systems turned into action in the school environment and based on their unique views teachers’ attitudes might affect students’ attitudes and behaviors. Teachers (n=13) believe that they may influence students either negatively or positively (n=13). In addition, teachers (n=4) reported that every teacher had his/her own unique perception and those might be the cause of moral dilemmas experienced. For instance, four teachers mentioned gender discrimination and discrimination based on students’ socio-economic status. Discussion This study showed that teachers believe in the importance of moral education, but they were likely to experience dilemmas themselves as much as their students in the school context. Such moral dilemmas were reported to be a result of individual priorities, or they might be based on the past experiences of individuals, the places in which they were raised, personal characteristics, their families, friends and other socio-cultural reasons. Moral dilemmas were considered to be directly related to teachers’ colleagues’ behaviors, student attitudes, and administrator attitudes. The inconsistency between different people’s applications like what teachers wanted to highlight in the moral education process of students, and what the student might have observed in the society or the school environment might create moral dilemmas. Such observations and experiences made it hard for the teachers to implement moral education and in some cases it was totally useless. The findings of this study showed that teachers could not be held accountable for the moral education of students. Rather, all individuals surrounding the students such as parents, friends, administrators and even the media were regarded as responsible endeavors of this process. To overcome moral dilemmas, both for teachers and students, this study suggests that common acceptable global values should be taught for moral education purposes. Such tendency may also reduce the dilemmas the teachers themselves experience with colleagues or administrators. A possible cooperation between Hanife Akar, Yeliz Temli, Derya Şen 875 these people may have a very crucial impact for increasing the effectiveness of the moral education of children. As future administrators, parents and teachers; the teacher candidates should be equipped with knowledge on how they can be a good role model to guide children both in school and out of school contexts. Nevertheless, although this study showed that teachers support moral education, they have problems about how to exert this type of teaching in their classrooms. This is an important implication for both pre-service and in-service teacher education to guide prospective teachers or novices on how to build learning environments in which students learn about global moral values. The learning of moral values should not be restricted with a single course alone. Rather this study suggests that it should be the responsibility of all staff in the school context as well as the responsibility of the entire society including the media as mentioned above. Therefore, the researchers suggest that moral education should be integrated into the curriculum and be the responsibility of all teachers in formal education. Also, the main philosophy of morality, universal values, and some skills like critical thinking and inquiry skills should be undertaken in educating teachers. It is argued that such life-long learning skills may guide individuals throughout their lives, and help them make good moral judgments when confronting moral dilemmas in their daily lives. Nevertheless, further policy research is suggested to examine how moral education could be integrated into the formal curriculum. References Algur, Ş. (2002). 1997 yılında Yüksek Öğretim Kurulu tarafından başlatılan eğitim fakültelerindeki yeniden yapılanma uygulamasının değerlendirilmesi. Unpublished master’s thesis, Erciyes Üniversity. Kayseri. Althod,W. , & Berkowitz, M.W. (2006). Moral education and character education: their relationship and roles in citizenship education, Journal of Moral Education, 35(4), 495-518. Cummings, R., Harlow, S. & Maddux, C. D. (2007). Moral Reasoning of inservice and pre-service teachers: a review of the research, Journal of Moral Education, 16(1), 67-78. Haydon, G. (2004). Values education: Sustaining the ethical environment, Journal of Moral Education 33(2), 115-129. Kaymakcan, R. (2007). Yeni ortaöğretim din kültürü ve ahlak bilgisi öğretim programı: İnceleme ve değerlendirme raporu. Istanbul: Eğitim reformu gelişimi. 876 Lessons for Prospective Teachers: Moral Dilemmas Teachers Encounter in School Contexts Lickona, T. (1997). The teacher’s role in character education, Journal of Education, 179(2), 63-8. Lickona, T. (1991). Educating for character: how our schools can teach respect and responsibility. New York: Bantam Books Maxwell, J.A.(1996). Qualitative Research Design. An Interactive Approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Miles, B.M. & Huberman, A.M.(1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd Ed.) Thousand Oaks: Sage. Noddings, N. (2006). A morally defensible mission for schools in the 21 st century. In E.F. Provenzo (Ed). Critical issues in education [pp. 39 – 48]. Thousands Oaks, California: Sage. Palmer, P. (1998). The courage to teach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Raulo, M. (2000). Introduction: All education is moral education, Journal of Moral Philosophy, 31(4), 507-518. Revell, L. & Arthur, J. (2007). Character education in schools and the education of teachers, Journal of Moral Education, 36(1), 79-92. _______DIE (2005). Devlet istatistik Enstitüsü demographic gostergeler, data retrieved from the Internet http://www.dsi.gov.tr. Wren, T. (2008). Philosophical Moorings. In Nucci & Narvaez (Eds.), Handbook of moral and character education (p.11-29). New York, NY: Routledge. Mathematics Teaching Efficacy of Pre-Service and In-Service Elementary Teachers in Turkey and Finland Nihan Şahinkaya, Gazi University – Turkey Jorma Joutsenlahti, Tampere University – Finland Neşe Tertemiz, Gazi University – Turkey Abstract In this study, teaching mathematics efficacy of pre-service and in-service elementary teachers in Turkey and Finland were determined. For this purpose, 60 students from Department of Elementary teacher from one of the state Universities, in Turkey and Finland, were selected. Similarly, 60 teachers from Ankara, Turkey, and Hameenlinna, Finland, were selected. Data were collected via Mathematics Teaching Efficacy Beliefs Instrument. This includes two dimensions. These are self-efficacy and outcome expectancy. Exploratory analysis and reliability analysis were done. Based on the collected data, the relationships of teaching mathematics self efficacy beliefs of in-service and preservice elementary teachers with experience and gender were clarified. The outcomes of the study showed that the grades of Finnish and Turkish teachers and pre-service teachers in efficacy of teaching mathematics did not have any relationship with the gender. Unlike to Finland, the grades of Turkish preservice teachers in teaching mathematics outcome expectancy are higher than those of elementary teachers. Key words: Pre-service elementary teacher, in-service elementary teachers, self-efficacy belief, teaching mathematics. Introduction and Theoretical Framework Teacher efficacy has proved to be powerfully related to many meaningful educational outcomes such as teachers’ persistence, enthusiasm, commitment and instructional behavior, as well as student outcomes such as achievement, 878 Mathematics Teaching Efficacy of Pre-service and In-service Elementary Teachers motivation, and self-efficacy beliefs (Tschannen & Woolfolk, 2001). Selfefficacy theory emerged from Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Bandura’s social cognitive theory focuses on how a person cognitively processes and interprets environmental outcomes. Bandura defined self-efficacy as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (Bandura, 1997). He defined outcome expectancy beliefs as “a person’s estimate that a given behavior will lead to certain outcomes” (Bandura 1997). Teachers’ beliefs in their personal efficacy to motivate and promote learning affect the types of learning environments they create and the level of academic progress their students achieve (Bandura, 1993). Teacher efficacy is an important variable in teacher development and how teachers teach (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998). Teacher efficacy has been shown to be a powerful construct related to student outcomes such as achievement, motivation, and sense of efficacy (Guskey & Passaro, 1994; Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998). Moreover, teacher efficacy was related to teachers’ behavior, effort, goals, aspiration, openness to new ideas, innovation, planning and organization, persistence, resilience, reluctance to use criticism, enthusiasm, willingness to work with difficult students, and commitment to teaching and their careers (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998). Teachers who believe student learning can be influenced by effective teaching (outcome expectancy beliefs) and who also have confidence in their own teaching abilities (self-efficacy beliefs) should persist longer, provide a greater academic focus in the classroom, and exhibit different types of feedback than teachers who have lower expectations concerning their ability to influence student learning (Gibson& Dembo,1984). Gibson and Dembo (1984) developed a 30-item Likert type Teacher Efficacy Scale (TES) to measure two dimensions of teacher efficacy. Factor analysis of responses from 208 elementary school teachers confirmed the existence of two factors, one that Gibson and Dembo called personal teaching efficacy assumed to reflect self-efficacy, and another called general teaching efficacy assumed to capture outcome expectancy. Riggs and Enochs (1990) developed an instrument to measure efficacy of teaching science. It was called the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument (STEBI) that has two versions; the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument form A (STEBI-A) for inservice elementary teachers (Riggs & Enochs, 1990) and the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument form B (STEBI-B) for preservice elementary teachers (Enochs & Riggs, 1990). Consistent with Gibson and Dembo, they have found two distinct dimensions, the first one was named as Personal Science Teaching Efficacy Belief (PSTE) scale which reflects Nihan Şahinkaya, Jorma Joutsenlahti, Neşe Tertemiz 879 elementary science teachers’ confidence in their ability to teach science and the second was named as Science Teaching Outcome Expectancy (STOE) scale which reflects elementary science teachers’ beliefs that student learning can be influenced by given effective instruction. Enochs, Huinker and Smith (2000) developed an instrument to measure efficacy of teaching mathematics by modifying the original STEBI-A and STEBI-B. The Mathematics Teaching Efficacy Beliefs Instrument (MTEBI) is comprised two subscales, personal mathematics teaching efficacy (PMTE) and mathematics teaching outcome expectancy (MTOE). This instrument has 21 items. Personal mathematics teaching efficacy (PMTE) has 13 items. Mathematics teaching outcome expectancy (MTOE) has 8 items. Each item has five response categories: strongly agree, agree, uncertain, disagree, and strongly disagree. Possible scores on the PMTE scale may range from 13 to 65; MTOE scores may range from 8 to 40. The examination of self-efficacy and outcome expectancy in relation to teaching has been the focus of study by several researchers (Guskey & Passaro, 1994; Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998, Enochs & Riggs,1990). In this study, Finnish and Turkish pre-service and in-service elementary teachers’ mathematics teaching efficacy beliefs were compared. Finland was the one of the top countries in PISA 2003 and 2006 rankings. Unfortunately, Turkey was not a successful country according to the PISA results. The examination of Finnish and Turkish pre-service and in-service elementary teachers’ mathematics teaching efficacy beliefs may provide some interesting information for the situation of Turkey in the rankings. Materials and Methods Sample Data were collected from 60 pre-service elementary teachers (47 females and 13 males) and in-service elementary teachers (41 females and 19 males) in Ankara, Turkey. Data were collected from 60 pre-service elementary teachers (50 females and 10 males) and in-service elementary teachers (43 females and 17 males) in Hämeenlinna, Finland. Pre-service elementary teachers were selected from one of the states universities in Ankara and Hämeenlinna. Instruments Mathematics Teaching Efficacy Beliefs Instrument (MTEBI) was applied to the each group. MTEBI-A version was used for pre-service elementary teachers, MTEBI-B version was used for in-service elementary teachers. The difference between these two versions is tense of items. The original English form was applied to Finnish pre-service and in-service elementary teachers. Whereas, 880 Mathematics Teaching Efficacy of Pre-service and In-service Elementary Teachers adapted Turkish version of the instrument were applied for the Turkish preservice and in-service elementary teachers. Reliability coefficients for the two scales of MTEBI-A were .79, and .73 for the PMTE, and MTOE, respectively, for the Turkish samples. Reliability coefficients for the two scales of MTEBI-A were .76, and .70 for the PMTE, and MTOE, respectively, for the Finnish samples. Reliability coefficients for the two scales of MTEBI-B were .75, and .72 for the PMTE, and MTOE, respectively for the Turkish samples. Reliability coefficients for the two scales of MTEBI-B were .79, and .72 for the PMTE, and MTOE, respectively, for the Finnish samples. Factor analysis indicated that the two scales were independent. The results of these analyses indicated that the MTEBI-A and MTEBI-B could be considered reasonable instrument to produce valid and reliable data. Results and Discussion A series of t-tests and one-way ANOVA was run on the scale scores of each subscales of the MTEBI-a and MTEBI-B in order to determine differences between pre-service and in-service elementary teachers’ mathematics teaching efficacy beliefs as a effects of gender and length of service. Table 1 indicates that there is a significant difference between MTOE scores of pre-service and in-service elementary teachers in Turkey and Finland. MTOE scores of pre-service elementary teachers are higher than in-service elementary teachers’ scores in Turkey. Unlike to Turkey case, MTOE scores of in-service elementary teachers are higher than pre-service elementary teachers’ scores in Finland. This shows that Pre-service teacher in Turkey can express themselves better than the in-service teacher about general teaching mathematics beliefs. The situation is different in Finland (Table 1) as the MTOE score of in-service teachers was higher than that of the pre-service teachers. For The Finland case, PMTE score of pre-service elementary teachers was higher than in-service elementary teachers. However, no significant difference was observed PMTE between scores of pre-service and in-service elementary teachers in Turkey (Table 1). These results claimed that the self confidence of pre-service and inservice teachers in Turkey were similar, whereas, in Finland the self confidence of pre-service teacher was higher than the in-service teacher. When we compared the grades of two country, it can be stated that the self-confidence of Turkish teachers were higher than that of Finnish teachers. 881 Nihan Şahinkaya, Jorma Joutsenlahti, Neşe Tertemiz Table 1: t-test scores for Pre-service and in-service elementary teachers in Turkey and Finland Turkey Pre-Service In-service sd PMTE MTOE ( Finland t Pre-Service p Sd In-Service sd 50.35 7.35 51.40 7.44 .778 t p sd .438 47.73 4.92 42.83 12.93 2.74 .007 31.13 4.30 29.20 4.35 2.447 .016 27.65 3.19 33.78 11.46 7.90 .000 : Mean, sd: standard deviation) In order to compare the scores of two countries, Tables 2 and 3 were provided. Table 2 indicates that there is a significant difference between PMTE and MTOE scores of in-service elementary teachers in Turkey and Finland. PMTE score of in-service elementary teachers in Turkey was higher than that in Finland. This shows that the self confidence of Turkish teacher is higher than their colleagues in Finland. Unlike to PMTE score, MTOE score of in-service elementary teachers in Finland was higher than that in Turkey. This result may claim that the Finnish teacher can express themselves better than their Turkish colleagues. Table 2: t-test scores of in-service elementary teachers in Turkey and Finland. Turkey Finland sd sd t p PMTE 51.40 7.44 42.83 12.93 4.448 .000 MTOE 29.20 4.35 33.78 11.46 2.896 .005 Table 3 indicates that there is a significant difference between PMTE and MTOE scores of pre-service elementary teachers. According to these results, it may be concluded that Turkish pre-service teacher have higher self confidence compared to Finnish one. Also, the Turkish pre-service teacher can express themselves better than their Finnish colleagues. Table 3: t-test scores of pre-service teachers in Turkey and Finland. Turkey Finland sd sd t p PMTE 50.35 7.35 47.73 4.92 2.291 .024 MTOE 31.13 4.30 27.65 3.19 5.035 .000 882 Mathematics Teaching Efficacy of Pre-service and In-service Elementary Teachers One-way Anova scores (data not shown) indicates that the main effects of gender and length of service did not yield any significant differences on the PMTE and MTOE scores of pre-service and in-service elementary teachers in Turkey and Finland. Not showing any difference based on gender is an expected result. However, not showing any meaningful difference in the PMTE and MTOE scores based on length of service is an unexpected result as the experience increases with the length of service. References Tschannen-Moran, M. & Woolfolk, Hoy A.(2001).Teacher Efficacy: Capturing an Elusive Construct. Teaching and Teacher Education,17, 783-805. Bandura ,A. (1993). Perceived Self-Efficacy in Cognitive Development and Functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28(2), 117-148. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H.Freeman and Company. Guskey, T. R. , & Passaro, P. D. (1994). Teacher efficacy: A study of construct dimensions. American Educational Research Journal, 31, 627-643. Gibson, S., & Dembo, M. H. (1984). Teacher efficacy: A construct validation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(4), 569-582. Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk Hoy, A. & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68(2), 202-248. Enochs, L. G., & Riggs, I. M. (1990). Further development of an elementary science teaching efficacy belief instrument: A preservice elementary scale. School Science and Mathematics, 90(8), 695-706. Riggs, I. M., & Enochs, L. G. (1990). Toward the development of an elementary teacher’s science teaching efficacy belief instrument. Science Education, 74(6), 625-637. Enochs,L.G., Smith P.L. & Huinker D.A. (2000). Establishing Factorial Validity of the Mathematics Teaching Efficacy Beliefs Instrument. School Science and Mathematics. 100(4),April, 194-202. Pedagogical Tactfulness Corina Iurea, Titu Maiorescu University of Bucuresti – Romania Cristina Geogiana Safta, Petroleum-Gas University of Ploiesti – Romania Abstract Modern pedagogy emphasizes the need for professional competence, tactfulness and skill on the teacher’s part to plan, organize and assess the pedagogical activity. Key words: Pedagogical tactfulness, teacher-student relationship, teacher’s role. Modern pedagogy emphasizes the need for professional competence, tactfulness and skill on the teacher’s part as he or she has to plan, organize and assess the pedagogical activity. Modern pedagogy emphasizes the need for the teacher to be professionally competent, to be tactful and skilled in order to plan, organize and assess the pedagogical activity. The responsibility to positively and creatively involve the students belongs to the teacher, who, wishing to get better results, must have thorough knowledge of the types and features of the behavior that influences students in a positive or negative manner. Such conflict-free, constructive and educational behavior is known as pedagogical tactfulness. Tactfulness, coming from “tactus” in Latin, means “touch, contact, palpation, influence, action”. Today tactfulness means a correct, careful and appropriate attitude concerning the observance of norms and behavior rules. The essence of pedagogical tactfulness in the institution does not concern the information, but the socio-humanitarian aspect, which is transmitted via the well-known qualities of the dialogue. The art of observing the student and of valuing the aptitudes and wishes the learner has is, to a great extent, a matter of tactfulness. 884 Pedagogical Tactfulness The science of pedagogy has mostly used the concept of tactfulness, but the meanings that can be attached to “tactfulness” in the teacher-student relationship are much more varied deeper and more complex. Pedagogy considers tactfulness connected to the perfect mastery of the instructional educational technique, meaning the ability to quickly find and use properly the methods, strategies, educational and teaching means, and to influence students for every particular situation. Psychology is concerned with the way pedagogical tactfulness influences the formation and development of the person educated, as well as his personality and ability to retain information. From a psychological perspective, pedagogical tactfulness is made up of knowing and understanding the students’ psychological features (character, temperament, aptitudes, skills). V. Pavelcu considers that pedagogical tactfulness involves the fulfillment of three fundamental conditions: • self-awareness and knowledge of students; • liking the profession and the students, a condition based on pedagogical optimism; • the ability to turn the student into an energy able itself to further create other cultural, material and spiritual values. When defining pedagogical tactfulness, sociology emphasizes the quality of the teacher-student relationship. The quality of the social interaction taking place between teacher and student is seen through: • the degree in which the teacher’s behavior is appropriate towards every student; • the degree of positive motivation given by the students’ results and their behavior; • the extent to which the student’s personality is developed; • the degree in which the psychological characteristics of the student is observed and in which an environment proper of the educational activity is created; • the results that are obtained in achieving the objectives set for the instruction. Axiology sees pedagogical tactfulness as the transmission and deep understanding of moral-spiritual values meant to ennoble reasoning and to make thought processes reach universal heights, this contributing to the stimulation of self-education and self-improvement. Taking into account the need for an open Corina Iurea, Cristina Geogiana Safta 885 and democratic education, axiology will emphasize the role of the human factor in education, that is, the orientation of the individual personality development. In the psychological and social context, the student’s role as subject of the education should be emphasized, this one being the person who receives and decodes the teacher’s messages in a personal manner. The student gets answers to his own problems, questions and previous experiences. To achieve a constraint-free relationship, the teacher, in turn, should give up his tendency to lead, to dominate. The art of creating, maintaining and enhancing the group’s unity, of guiding is a matter of tactfulness. The teacher’s attitude, his style to create relationships influence the environment within the group, either by stimulating or inhibiting it, influencing every member and motivating inter-personal interactions. To really be present in the student’s thought pattern and behavior, the teacher should not only master his subject, but should be a total educator, dealing both with the student’s cultural level, and with his social affectivity and integrity. Pedagogical tactfulness involves an affective intuition and refined abilities to notice the changes that occur in the student’s social environment. The correct and objective assessment of these changes strengthens the teacher-student relationship. The teacher acts within the institution in the benefit of the students, not of himself. Deep knowledge of the scientific field he teaches, his richer life experience as compared to the student’s as well as his being aware of his educational objectives and responsibilities give the teacher a higher status. The teacher’s role is to advise, to council, to direct and to act as a student’s partner. As a matter of fact, the teacher only creates an illusion of brotherly power, since it is useless to pretend to be what he is not. The complexity of the teaching profession requires a wide range of qualities, competencies, abilities which cannot be ensured by the specific scientific training. For this reason, teachers need interdisciplinary and psycho-pedagogical training, as part of their life-long education. Pedagogical tactfulness means using methods, procedures and means to stimulate and develop the skill for research, investigation, discovery and creative thinking to problems. The student appreciates not only the amount of knowledge his teacher has, but also the channel through which these are translated, explained and rendered. This means that pedagogical tactfulness involves communicative competence as well. The art of pedagogical communication is made up of the ability to translate and explain the information in an accessible manner, the skill to enhance motivation through attractive messages. 886 Pedagogical Tactfulness The causes for which students miss lectures or are not interested are very different. Some of them are: • • • • • • • • too much information supplied by teachers; the mismatch between content and the student’s interest; the inability to listen; external factors; the tone and rhythm of the teacher’s voice; poor health; selective involvement of students; teachers dominates the class (long teacher speaking time). The lack of tactfulness on the part of the teacher is defined as: “exaggerated toughness, which generates, through tone and choice of vocabulary, moralizing didacticism and dictatorship, a rigid attitude, stereotypical procedures, lack of meaningful relationships, inefficient explanations.” (J. Stefanovic, 1979) A teacher with pedagogical tactfulness is much more worthy than a professional, as the former is an artist in his profession. The artist educator is better than the educator-by-training. Whereas both work using scientific principles and laws, the first has the ability to apply these principles in a suitable manner, adapted to every situation. The teacher’s character, which is an expression of his professional qualities, is a part of pedagogical tactfulness and involves honesty, seriousness, principalship, perseverance and critical attitude. The psycho-temperamental features typical for pedagogical tactfulness are patience, balance, self-restraint, decisiveness, energy and drive. The teacher must grant his students the freedom and responsibility for the choice of the ways of interacting, of establishing the goals and of setting the behaviors. Learning is much more motivating and triggers higher performance when it is supported by individual and common interest than when it is imposed from the outside by the teacher’s authority. The positive teacher-student interactions create the opportunity to develop the student’s motivation to learn, prevent the feeling of difficulty of learning tasks, emphasize the uniqueness and originality of every student, help solve problems, create a favourable environment for communication and educational activities. The efficiency of an activity is assessed through: • the quality and quantity of students’ performance; • the nature of the motivation and satisfaction of the group members; Corina Iurea, Cristina Geogiana Safta 887 • the teacher’s professional and social competence; • the group’s social environment. As far as maintaining voluntary attention is concerned, this can be achieved by the teacher by fulfilling the following requirements: • the quality and quantity of students’ performance; • clear layout of the fundamental objectives and of the positive effects of the activities; • emphasis on the essential and of the positive effects of the educational tasks; • create a positive environment and facilitate interactions; • use of attractive and varied educational means; • reduction of any factors that may hinder learning; • stimulation of the originality and individuality of every student. In defining pedagogical tactfulness, the teacher and the student place different emphasis on it due to the different meaning attached to the roles and functions they have within institutional education. Pedagogical tactfulness does not mean just competent delivery of knowledge, it also involves: • the quality and quantity of students’ performance; • identifying the type of personality of the students and using the existing qualities to the full; • choosing and adopting the pedagogical methods and means according to the content taught and to the age and other individual characteristics; • authentic communication between the actors involved; • creativity and originality; • pedagogical mastery and talent. Becoming aware of the role played by pedagogical tactfulness, the emphasis placed on its presence in the teacher-student relationship shows the need for an interventional programme for the teachers’ psycho-pedagogical training with a view to life-long education. References Dragu, A. (1996). Structura personalităţii profesorului. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică. Marcu, S.(coord.). (1999). Competenţa didactică din perspectiva psihologiei. Bucureşti: Editura All. 888 Pedagogical Tactfulness Mitrofan, N. (1982). Aptitudinea pedagogică. Bucureşti: Editura Academiei. Stefanovic, J. (1979). Psihologia tactului pedagogic. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică. Perceptions of Science and Mathematics Teachers about the Relations between What Courses for Qualified Science Mathematics Education in Elementary Schools S. Ahmet Kıray, Bilge Gök, İlke Çaıişkan, Fitnat Kaptan, Hacettepe University – Turkey Abstract This study is aimed to identify sixth, seventh and eighth grade science & technology and mathematics’ teachers perceptions about their needed relations and integrations according to curriculum steps of input, process and output. Qualitative research methodology was used in this study. The data of the study were obtained from the semi-structured interview form which was consisted of open ended questions. Fifteen open ended questions were asked to teachers in a semi-structural interview environment. Totally nine (four mathematics and five science and technology teachers) from two elementary schools in Ankara participated this study. Content analysis was used as a data analysis technique. Computer aided strategy was selected for using in this study for eliminating the threats to the quality of data analysis in qualitative research. NVivo2 was used as a statistical package program in this study. The results of the study gave useful implications for program developers and teachers in different fields especially science and mathematics. Key words: Integrated curriculum, science and technology education, mathematics education. Introduction The increase in the knowledge in this period cause the distribution of different disciplines and impossible to be known every disciplines by the individuals. These positions require to obtain knowledge from different disciplines and integration of them (Kıray, Önal & Kaptan, 2007). After the year of 1990, the concept of science and mathematics integration became a special 890 Perceptions of Science and Mathematics Teachers about the Relations field after covering process integration approach around all courses. The main idea of science and mathematics integration is rather than integrating two courses in all parts, integrating the common parts of the two courses. Science provides rich contexts and concrete phenomena demonstrating mathematical patterns and relationships. Mathematics provides the language and tools necessary for deeper analysis of science concepts and applications. If teachers have not experienced this integration of science and mathematics, they are unlikely to teach integrated curricula in their classrooms (Basista & Mathews, 2002). Science and math related experiences need to be made more personal and relevant to student’s immediate and future interests and needs. Often solutions to real world problems depend upon an understanding of both science and math in an integrated way. We all need understand the way the world around us work. We can not be compartmentalized by specific subject matter skills and attitudes. If we are to prepare our children for the future we must to better job connecting science and math and connecting school science and math to “street” science and math or real life applications (Berlin & White, 1993). The areas identified for further exploration include comparison of the nature of mathematics and science, epistemological debates in mathematics and in science education, the bases used to emphasize science over mathematics or vice versa, empirical evidence of effectiveness of integration, connections between teacher education programs for integration and teachers’ subsequent classroom teaching practices, perceptions of integration on the part of teacher educators, contextual difficulties in implementing integrated approaches and possible solutions, and rationales of integrating mathematics and science through technology (Pang & Good, 2000). Now a century later, one might pause to consider the progress teacher educators have made in helping both teachers and students not only see the important connections between the disciplines, but also understand how one discipline can support learning of the other (Frykholhn & Glasson, 2005). The aim of the study is to identify sixth, seventh and eighth grade science & technology and mathematics’ teachers perceptions about their needed relations and integrations according to curriculum steps of input, process and output. The results of this study emphasized the importance of organizing ongoing curricula and developing new curricula, identifying proper tool, activities, teaching and learning techniques, organizing learning environment and identifying measurement and assessment approaches for increasing students attitudes towards science and mathematics in a positive manner. Suggestions for program developers and educators of the necessity of the content in input, process and output levels, applicability of the curricula were presented under the light of this studies findings related to teacher experiences in schools. S. Ahmet Kıray, Bilge Gök, İlke Çalişkan, Fitnat Kaptan 891 Method Research Model This study is designed considering the assumptions of sensitivity of the natural environment, following integrated approach, allowing to indicate perceptions, using inductive analysis with qualitative data and flexibility of the research design. In this study, extreme and anomalous sampling technique of purposeful sampling strategy was used and two schools, five science and technology teachers and four mathematics teacher were selected. Data Collection and Analysis Data in this study were obtained by interview forms consisted of semistructured interview questions. The schools and the names of the teachers were coded for considering ethical issues. Schools were coded like T and B with capital letters and the teachers were coded like TF1, BF1, TM1 and BM1 with small letters. Interviews were recorded by voice record tool. After that, these interviews were transcribed by the researchers and organized according the sub problems of the research. Content analysis technique was used in this study. The main purpose of the content analysis is to reach the concepts and patterns that explain data (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2006). In this process, data were coded, independent code list and themes were constructed, relationship between themes and codes were provided by tendency codes and the steps of the transmission of findings were done. Computer-aided strategy was preferred and NVivo 2 qualitative data analysis program was used for eliminating the possible threats to quality in qualitative data analysis. Because in qualitative data analysis process, bias in analyzing and interpreting, more emphasize on positive and neglecting negative events, focusing on extreme points, making unnecessary generalizations, definitions of the codes and concepts unclearly, applying the data in an unrelated manner was considered as possible threats to quality in qualitative data analysis (Gibbs and others, 2002). All possible threats were considered and the researchers were avoiding from partial coding and bias in coding process. Findings The professional experience of the participants in this study is generally between 10 to 20 years but three of the teachers’ professional experience is more than 20 years. Besides this, four participants were graduated from Education Faculty, four participants were graduated from Art and Science Faculty and one participant was graduated from Engineering Faculty. When looking at the courses that the mathematics teachers gave before, two mathematics teachers have not given any course besides than mathematics, one 892 Perceptions of Science and Mathematics Teachers about the Relations mathematics teacher gave English and Physical Education courses and the other mathematics teacher gave biology, physics, science and accounting courses. In Science and Technology teachers, two of them gave mathematics and traffic, one of them gave chemistry, one of them gave art education, music, English, religion education and one of them gave religion education, physical education and accounting. The findings which were obtained from this study were underlined separately according to the science and mathematics teachers’ point of views. The perceptions of the science and mathematics teachers were analyzed by looking at the three phases of the program; input, process and output. no mathematics 5 1 yes social sciences art mathematics 3 no course technological design turkish 0 5 mathematics turkish 1 3 turkish turkish technological design mathematics 5 social sci. turkish 2 5 1 5 4 5 4 1 OUTPUT DIMENSION OF PROGRAM mathematics 1 1 meaningful learning teachers who make collaboration 1 3 transfer of knowledge ans skills relating to daily life the effect of other courses to course achievement 5 technological design social sci. turkish 1 measuremenet and assessment similar to other courses 5 mathematics social sci. measurement and assessment criterions 3 3 PROCESS DIMENSION OF PROGRAM science and tech. 1 SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS INTEGRATION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOJY COURSE social sci. mathematics mathematics 2 turkish turkish common tools and materials 2 3 1 2 2 2 3 the effect of other courses to attitude towards a course social sci. 1 technological design classroom teachers INPUT DIMENSION OF PROGRAM relationship between activities mathematics mathematics turkish 5 5 5 common skills social sci. 2 1 tech. design no course 2 3 1 turkish common concept,principle or term 1 music 2 parallelism with units 3 1 techn. design social sci. all courses 1 technological design 4 4 art 1 relating science and technology atainment all courses mathematics turkish 5 mathematics 3 1 5 mathematics all courses 4 mathematics technolojical design social sci. all courses turkish Figure 1: The views of science and technology teachers about science and mathematics integration around the three dimensions of program art 1 turkish science and technology science and tech. technological design 3 1 no 2 yes science and tech. social sci. turkish 4 3 social sci. 1 art 1 2 1 teachers who make collaboration turkish measurement and assessment similar to other courses 2 techn. design turkish 1 3 measurement and assessment criterions 1 science and tech. techn. design meaningful learning turkish 4 3 socail sci. science and tech. 4 2 2 1 2 2 2 transfer of knowledge and skills relating to daily life OUTPUT DIMENSION OF PROGRAM PROCESS DIMENSION OF PROGRAM turkish art science and tech. no course 1 common skills mathematics 4 1 techn. design 3 SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS INTEGRATION MATHEMATICS COURSE the effect of other courses to course achievement 2 1 3 common tools and materials 2 no course science and techn. turkish science and tech. 1 turkish 4 2 social sci. 1 1 3 social sci. 1 art INPUT DIMENSION OF PROGRAM classroom teachers the effect of other courses to attitude towards a course social sci. techn. design relationship between activities science and tec. 1 2 1 1 3 social sci. 1 3 first grade techn. design social sci. science and tech. common concept, principle or term science art 2 parallelsim with units 1 turkish no course 3 1 3 1 technological des. social sci. 1 4 relating mathematics attainment social sci. art science and tech. 3 2 turkish science and tech. 2 science and tech. 2 techn. design Sosyal Figure 2: The views of mathematics teachers about science and mathematics integration around the three dimensions of program S. Ahmet Kıray, Bilge Gök, İlke Çalişkan, Fitnat Kaptan 895 According to Figure 1, related to the input phase of the program, all the science and technology teachers (N:5) indicate science & technology attainments and units should be related with mathematics units, on the other side, most of the teachers (N:4) thought that the principles and concepts which were gained in science and technology courses were used in mathematics courses. In process phase of program, all of the science & technology teachers (N:5) indicate that mathematics course has contributions in relating students knowledge and skills into daily life situations, they should make collaborations with mathematics teachers during the preparation process of plans, relate and transfer their knowledge and skills into mathematics course. Most of the science & technology teachers (N:3) think that they use similar tools with mathematics teachers and they believe that they have contributions for not only science & technology classes but also for mathematics classes. In product phase of program, all of the science and technology teachers (N:5) indicate that they consider the mathematics knowledge and skills of students when identifying their measurement and assessment criteria and they thought that students’ mathematics achievement affect their science & technology achievement. Most of the teachers (N: 3) think that the measurement and assessment approaches are similar with mathematics courses and mathematics course is useful for increasing students’ attitudes towards science and technology. When looking at Figure 2, most of the mathematics teachers (N:3) indicate that mathematics course attainments and units should be related with science & technology course attainments and aims. All of the teachers (N: 4) think that concepts, principles and terms which they give in mathematics courses are used in science & technology courses. Most of the mathematics teachers (N:4) indicate that students should relate the concepts which they learn in science with mathematics to learn meaningfully, they need to transfer knowledge and skills from science & technology when they teach their courses, science & technology courses provide contributions for students to relate their knowledge and skills into the daily life situations and mathematics and science & technology courses have common skills. Most of the mathematics teachers (N:3) think that they should make collaboration with science and technology teachers, they use common tools with science & technology teachers and they make contributions to the science and technology classes. Most of the mathematics teachers (N:3) indicate that they consider the science & technology knowledge and skills of students when identifying their measurement and assessment criteria and they thought that students’ mathematics achievement affect their and science & technology achievement and science & technology course is useful for increasing students’ attitudes towards mathematics. The half of the teachers (N: 2) think that measurement and assessment approaches of mathematics course are similar with science & technology courses. 896 Perceptions of Science and Mathematics Teachers about the Relations Discussion and Suggestions Although this research study looks like a needs assessment study, current program exposed new needs in the field. Under the light of the findings which were obtained from this research study, science & technology and mathematics course aims and attainments should be considered. When organizing units of the two of the course, after identifying simultaneously units, other units should be replaced according to their becoming order. These criteria should be considered during organization process of program and identifying common concepts, principles and terms in the first step of program planning. Common and separate skills of science and mathematics should be emphasized in the program. Although the wellness of the program, it should interpreted by the teachers. Because of this, teachers should make relations into the daily situations in their classes; they should consider the content of the courses in this process. Although there is no integrated science and mathematics program, collaboration environment between science and mathematics teachers should be provided, teachers should take their views and reorganize the place of the attainments and units. Science and mathematics teachers should organize activities which have contributions to both mathematics and science courses and they should use the materials in schools jointly. Teachers should make collaboration with the other teachers during the preparation process of measurement and assessment approaches. When investigating the teachers2 views, students’ achievement and attitude towards science & technology and mathematics affect each other. Because of this, teaching and learning environments should be organized for increasing students’ achievement in both courses. References Basista, B. & Mathews, S. (2002). Integrated science and mathematics professional development programs, School Science and Mathematics, 102 (7), 359. Berlin, B. F. & White, A. L. (1993). Integration of science and mathematics: What parents can do, National center for science teaching and learning, ED 366 508. Frykholm, J., Glasson G. (2005). Connecting science and mathematics instruction: pedogogical context knowledge for teachers, School Science and Mathematics. Kıray, S.A, Önal, İ. & Kaptan, F. (2007). A study about pre-service teacher’s integration of science and mathematics, International Teacher Education Politics and Problems Symposium, Azerbaijan State Pedagogy University, Bakü. S. Ahmet Kıray, Bilge Gök, İlke Çalişkan, Fitnat Kaptan 897 Pang, J. & Good, R. (2000). A review of the integration of science and mathematics: implications for further research, School Science and Mathematics, 100 (2), 73-82. Preschool Teachers’ Beliefs Concerning Their Professional Identity Anna Moutafidou, Artemis Alexandra Georgopoulou, Erene Sivropoulou, University of Western Macedonia – Greece Abstract Teachers’ perceptions of their professional role are generally found to be formed through their own pedagogical philosophy. Other recent studies support that teachers’ perceptions and attitudes are greatly influenced by the experience they have acquired within their classroom environment. However, regardless of which of the positions researchers mainly support, they all result in the fact that teachers’ professional identity influences both their efficiency and their will to cope with educational changes and to implement innovations. For this reason and because of the numerous changes and innovations pertaining to the preschool education, we attempt to explore the perceptions of the preschool teachers of Drama and Florina Prefectures, concerning their educational role. Specifically, this research focuses on three interactive parts. In the first part the theoretical discussion on the construction of the preschool teacher’s identity is presented. Secondly we explore the beliefs of 122 teachers who responded to a questionnaire containing 36 questions-statements and we conclude with the interpretive analysis. Key words: Preschool teachers, professional identity, preschool education Introduction Whether or not teaching is a ‘profession’, an ‘art’, or a ‘craft’, and how teachers and teacher educators develop, sustain and define their roles and identities as professionals, or artisans has been an issue of considerable discussion in recent years. In the last decade, teachers’ professional identity has emerged as a separate research area (Beijaard et al, 2004). The concept of identity is defined in various ways in the more general literature. What these various meanings have in common is the idea that identity 900 Preschool Teachers’ Beliefs Concerning Their Professional Identity is not a fixed attribute of a person, but a relational phenomenon and an ongoing process. Beijaard Meijer & Verloop, selected 22 studies relevant to teachers’ professional identity, after a literature review of the period 1988-2000. In the studies reviewed, the concept of professional identity was defined differently or not defined at all. From all these studies, four essential features of teachers’ professional identity could be derived: 1) professional identity is an ongoing process of interpretation and re-interpretation of experiences, so it is dynamic, not stable or fixed, 2) professional identity implies both person and context, 3) a teacher’s professional identity consists of sub-identities that more or less harmonize, 4)agency is an important element of professional identity, meaning that teachers have to be active in the process of professional development (Coldron & Smith, 1999). In an effort to clarify the factors which influence the way professional identity is formed, researchers focus on different sectors. According to Flores and Day (2006) the three main influences upon the construction, deconstruction and reconstruction of professional identities of teachers are: α) prior influences, which examines teachers’ past experiences as pupils), β) initial teacher training and teaching practice, γ) contexts of teaching. Zenbylas (2003) and Flores & Day (2006) consider that the emotions of a teacher play an important role in his/her id formation as they influence his/her teaching, the relationships with his/her students and the political context of the school. According to Reio (2005) educational reforms influence teacher identity directly, moderated or mediated by age, career stage or generation. Identity, in turn, directly influences one’s emotional reactions to reform. Emotions then directly impact both risk taking behavior and learning and development. Finally, learning (e.g., sense making) and development directly influences teacher identity. Beijaard mentions that based on a study of Sikes P.J., three main features of teachers' professional identity can be distinguished, namely: the subject they teach, their relationship with pupils and their role or role conception. Moreover he mentions that these days, a great deal of research on teaching focuses on teachers’ teaching contexts, their experiences, and biographies. It is generally assumed that these elements, often in interaction with each other, influence a teacher's thoughts and actions (Beijaard & Verloop 2000). Holland,D., Cain C., Lachicotte W., Skinner D.Jr do not distinguish between professional and personal identity; however, the identity of a person is constructed differently in different figured worlds. To Wenger, our identity is shaped through participation, intentionally and non-intentionally, in various Anna Moutafidou, Artemis Alexandra Georgopoulou, Erene Sivropoulou 901 communities of practice and our identity in turns shapes our participation in those communities (Swennen et al, 2008). In his last study McGillivray (2008) gives a more detailed definition of professional identity, and says that according to the literature professional identity is constructed on shifting but simultaneously enduring perceptions, influenced by history, society, ideologies and discourse. Individual dispositions and emotions, day-to-day lives and relationships, training and education are also influential in creating or sustaining professional identity. Problematisation and an unsettling of the workforce are implicitly written into the dominant discourse of current early years care and education policy as change is initiated through the implementation of the Children’s Workforce Reform. During the last decade many changes as well as innovations have occurred in the Greek preschool education but the far most important is that of the entrance of preschool education in compulsory education. Because of these changes and due to the lack of affined papers in the Greek literature we have decided to explore preschool teachers’ beliefs concerning their professional identity. Methodology We have chosen the questionnaire as our research tool because it easily arouses the interest of social subjects and thus increases participation in the research (Javeau, 1998), and moreover it enables us to gather information about the views and ideas, something not possible to be easily collected otherwise (Fraise & Piaget, 1970). Furthermore, when it is well designed and properly used, it can offer extremely useful and important results (Cohen & Manion, 1994). Firstly the questionnaire was administered and completed by 30 preschool teachers. Those teachers were asked to comment on the understanding, and to express their opinions on whether the issue was covered and complete. Their comments were taken into account for the final form of the questionnaire which consisted of 36 questions/statements, divided in the five following factors: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. University studies and further training Former experiences Cooperation with colleagues and parents Career choice Educational role in classroom The sample of the study The sample of our study consisted of 122 preschool teachers working in public schools of Drama and Florina prefectures during 2007-2008. 121 were female and 1 was male. 19.7% (24) of them were 22-35 years old, 58.2% (71) 902 Preschool Teachers’ Beliefs Concerning Their Professional Identity were 36-45 years old, 19.7% (24) were 46-55 years old and 2.5% (3) were over 55 years old. 41.8% (51) of them worked in all day preschools (8 a.m.-4 a.m.) and 58,2% (71) of them in traditional preschools(8 a.m.-12.30 a.m.). 26,2% (32) of the respondents had 5 years of teaching experience, το 38,5% (47) 6 -15 years, 26,2% (32) of them 16 -25 years and 9% (11) over 25 years. 37,7% (46) of the preschool teachers taught in urban nursery schools, 32,8% (40) worked in suburban settings, and 29,5% (36) worked in rural nursery schools. The large majority of the respondents, namely 41% (50) had a degree of the Department of Nursery Education, of the Pedagogical Faculty (4 years). 43.4% (53) of the respondents had a 2-year university degree and 13.9% of them had undertaken a 1-year further training programme in a public university. 7 teachers had undertaken a 2-year further training programme in a public university, and 5,7% (7) had a Master of Education (M.Ed). 3,3% (4) had a second university degree, but only one of the respondents had a PhD. The selection of the sample was random. Results For the processing of data we used the total scores of the above groups of questions to get the level of agreement and the standard deviation of each group. At this point we should mention that these groups did not arise from Factor Analysis, but were conceptually identified in advance on the questionnaire. The first group consisted of 7 questions concerning university education and further teacher training. According to the results 50% of the preschool teachers of our study consider that the university pedagogical training helped them in classroom management (24.6% disagree), but 41.8% state that the preparation provided to them as university students was not sufficient in order to deal effectively with the demanding nature of their daily job in classroom (24.8 disagree and 33.6 neither agree nor disagree). The initial beliefs about teaching of 49.2% of the preschool teachers differed from the actual role they were asked to take over as teachers (23.4% disagree) and 77.9% of them think of their teaching experience as more important than the knowledge acquired in university. Less than half of the sample (43.4%) believe that being a good preschool teacher is mainly a matter of personality and less a matter of studies (24.6% disagree and 32% neither agree nor disagree). The numerous changes and innovations, namely the new data of Greek education raise doubts to 38.5% of the preschool teachers about their ability to cope with them (29.6 disagree) and the majority of them (93.4%) consider that continuous training is essential for their development. Anna Moutafidou, Artemis Alexandra Georgopoulou, Erene Sivropoulou 903 Regarding the curricula of preschool education, 77.9% of preschool teachers believe they should be involved in their design, whereas only 5.7% of them disagree. The second group consisted of 4 questions concerning the preschool teachers’ experiences. Prior experiences as pupils, namely those regarding their former teachers, influenced the career choice of 31.2% of the preschool teachers, while a larger percentage disagree (50%). Respectively, only 40.1% of the respondents said their way and style of teaching have been influenced by one or more former teachers they met as pupils. However 43.5% of them believe the prior experiences as students helped them better understand their role as preschool teachers, whereas 24.6% of them disagree. The third group includes 10 questions that pertain to cooperation with colleagues and parents. Based on the results, 63.1% of the samples seem to easily meet the daily demands of their work, while only 13.9% encounter many difficulties. 48.4% of the respondents feel there is lack of support and guidance (that will help them cope with their educational duties) while 42.6% said that preschool consultants have helped them to face most of the difficulties. 84.4% of our sample considers that cooperation with their colleagues influences their work in the classroom. Of equal importance (72.2%) is the cooperation with primary school teachers in order to accomplish successfully their task. Almost all the respondents (94.3%) believe that cooperation with parents is a key aspect of their role, even though some of them (38.5%) say that parents usually do not appreciate their work. Regarding their administrative role, 76.2% of them consider the bureaucratic side of their profession negatively affects the performance of their duties (only 11.5% felt it had not). The fourth group includes 4 questions regarding the career choice. 60.7% of the teachers involved in the study entered the profession because they felt a personal strong commitment to become teachers (17.4 disagree). Only 24.6% joined teaching owing to non-related teaching reasons and 36.1% because they viewed it as a stable and secure job. The larger percentage believe their decision to become teachers was correct (86.1%) and 90 teachers (73.8%) are satisfied with the way they teach. The fifth group consists of 10 questions involving the role of preschool teachers in the classroom. The social, emotional and moral development of children seem to be the first priority for 95.9% of the respondents, while planning, performance and evaluation of teaching play a highly important role for 63.1% of them. 79.5% of the preschool teachers believe a student-oriented approach should prevail in teaching and 96.7% said that teachers should 904 Preschool Teachers’ Beliefs Concerning Their Professional Identity encourage active learning. The continuous assessment of children’s performance is a basic aspect of their educational role for 77.8% of them. Most of the respondents (66.4%) do not consider the (traditional) teacheroriented approach as the best way of teaching while a significant percentage (23.8) appears not to have a clear view. Similarly only 13.2% believes that emotional distance from students improves classroom management (64.7% disagree and 22.1% neither agree nor disagree). Almost all the respondents (92.6%) believe that self assessment is a tool for self-improvement. Finally the majority of the teachers (77.1%) say they are autonomous and free enough to teach in the way they deem best. Discussion Nowadays many researchers explore the beliefs and perceptions of teachers. The quality of those beliefs and perceptions differ depending on the type of the university, the culture or the country surveyed (Alghazo et al, 2003). In this study preschool teachers’ perceptions of their professional identity are encouraging since they appear to be aware of the gravity of their role as well as the conditions required for its function. In particular, their identity appears dynamic as 77.9% of them believe they should participate in curricula design, a view shared by Hatzigeorgiou (2004). Another important feature is their selfconfidence due to the fact that 86.1% think they took the right decision in entering this profession (similar conclusions were drawn by Laura Colker, 2008) and 77.1% that they choose the way they deem best for teaching. The second finding focuses on the fact that the respondents seek cooperation with colleagues at a rate of 84% and with parents at a rate of 94.3%. Regarding the cooperation with parents, Anna Lomba (2006) has the same views. The third finding focuses on the fact that the preschool teachers are aware of the contemporary educational data. More explicitly they emphasise on the student oriented approach (79.5%) and the encouragement of active learning (96.7%). Moreover 95.9% of them think that the social, emotional and moral development of children should be their first priority. Finally they focus on the assessment of children’s performance as well as on self-assessment as a tool for personal improvement. A strong emphasis on self assessment is put on the book of John E. C. MacBeath, Michael Schratz, Lars Jakobsen, Denis Meuret (2000). The fourth finding refers to the need of further training because of the numerous educational changes that are taking place. As far as it concerns further training, parallel are the beliefs of Lindsay P. and Lindsay C.H.(1987), Tomas J. Van Weert (2006) and Grimsoeth G. et al. (2008) Despite the fact that the results of this study cannot be generalized because of the small sample, we believe they indicate the general trends in preschool teachers’ views on their professional identity. We could safely draw conclusions Anna Moutafidou, Artemis Alexandra Georgopoulou, Erene Sivropoulou 905 about preschool teachers’ concerns, the problems they face, the way they see themselves as teachers as well as the practices they use, in a more extended study. Those conclusions would be particularly important in view of the changes occurring in Greek education today, as we must be aware of the way teachers face novelties and because of the fact that teachers’ perceptions of their professional role directly influence their efficiency. References Αlghazo, E. M., Dodeen, H., & Algatyouti, I. A. (2003, December). “Attitudes of pre service teacher persons with disabilities: predictions for the success of inclusion” College studemt Journal Retrieved August 27, 2004, from http: www. Findarticles.com / p/articles/mi_ Mofcr/is_437/ai_112720415. Beijaard, D. (1995). Teachers' Prior Experiences and Actual Perceptions of Professional Identity. Teachers and Teaching:Τheory and practice,Vol.1, No 2. Beijaard, D., Meijer, C. P., Verloop, N.(2004). Reconsidering Research on Teachers’ Professional Identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20, 107-128 Beijaard, D., Verloop, N., & Vermunt, J. D. (2000) Teachers’ perceptions of professional identity: an exploratory study from a personal knowledge perspective. Teaching and Τeacher Εducation, 16, 7, 749-764 Cohen, L. & Manion, L. (1994). Research methods in education(4th ed). London: Routledge. Coldron, J. & Smith, R. (1999). Active location in teachers’construction of their professional identities. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 31, 6, 711–726. Colker, J. L. (2008). Twelve Characteristics of Effective Early Childhood Teachers. YC Young Children, Journal of the National Assosiation for the Education OF Young Children. March 2008. Flores, M. A. & Day, C. (2006), Contexts which shape and reshape new teachers’ identities: A multi-perspective study. Teaching and Τeacher Εducation, 22, 219-232 Fraise, P., & Piaget, J. (1970).Traite de psychologie experimentale. Paris : PUF. Grimsæth, G., Nordvik, G., & Bergsvik, E.,(2008). The newly qualified teacher: a leader and a professional? A Norwegian study. Journal of In-service Education,Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 219–236 906 Preschool Teachers’ Beliefs Concerning Their Professional Identity Hatzigeorgiou, G. (2004). Γνωθι το Curriculum. Athens: Atrapos Javeau, J. (1998). L’enquete par questionnaire manual a I’usage du praticien. Bruxells : Universite de Bruxelles. Lindsay, P. & Lindsay, C. H. (1987). Teachers in preschools and child care centers: Overlooked and undervalued. Child and Youth Care Forum, Vol.16, No 2. Lomba, A. (2006).Builbing parent – school collaboration in preschool. American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL). Vol. 1, Issue 3. MacBeath, J., Schratz, M., Jakobsen, L., & Meuret, M. (2000). Self-evaluation in European Schools: A story of change. Routledge, 2000, 94-101 McGillivray, G., (2008). Nannies, nursery nurses and early years professionals: Construction of professional identity in the early years workforce in England. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 16, 2, 242-254 Swennen, A., Volman, M., Mineke V. E. (2008). The development of the professional identity of two teacher educators in the context of Dutch teacher education. European Journal of Teacher Education, 31, 2, 169184 Thomas, G., & Reio, Jr. (2005). Emotions as a lens to explore teacher identity and change: A commentary. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21 985– 993. Zembylas, M. (2003). The emotional characteristics of teaching: An ethnographic study of one teacher. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20, 185-201. Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Teaching Self-Efficacy Beliefs Sevgi Aydın, Yüzüncü Yıl University – Turkey Yezdan Boz, Middle East Technical University – Turkey Abstract This study focuses on pre-service science teachers’ teaching self-efficacy beliefs and effect of school experience and gender on them. To collect data, STEBI-B questionnaire, including 23 five-point Likert-type items, developed by Enochs and Riggs (1990) was used. It consists of two subscales which are personal science teaching efficacy (PSTE) and science teaching outcome expectancy (STOE). The sample included 162 pre-service science teachers, 50 females and 112 males, from all grades of four-year program. Descriptive statistics revealed that pre-service teachers had moderate teaching self-efficacy beliefs (M=51.20 for PSTE and M=36.71 for STOE). Moreover, MANOVA analysis indicated that there was not a significant effect of school experience on participants’ both PSTE and STOE beliefs whereas gender had a significant effect on pre-service teachers’ STOE beliefs. Key words: Self-efficacy, science teaching self-efficacy, pre-service teachers, pre-service teacher education Introduction In the last twenty five years, as mentioned in Gencer & Cakiroglu (2005), teachers’ efficacy beliefs, their relation with teachers’ instruction and students’ learning were analyzed in many studies (Tschannen- Moran and Woolfolk Hoy, 2007; Schoon and Boone, 1998; Coladarci, 1992). In light of them, teachers’ beliefs have important impacts on their behaviors in class, students’ achievement and motivation (Tschannen- Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007), their perception about their roles and interaction with students (Allinder, 1994), management orientations (Gencer & Cakiroglu, 2005). Studies on teachers’ beliefs were underlined in Ashton (1990) due to their importance for providing 908 Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Teaching Self-Efficacy Beliefs application in teacher education programs. Similar to Ashton (1990), Gibson and Dembo (1984) mentioned the importance of teachers’ beliefs as following; “One would predict that teachers who believe student learning can be influenced by effective teaching and who also have confidence in their own teaching abilities, should persist longer, provide a greater academic focus in the classroom and exhibit different types of feedback than teachers who have lower expectations concerning their ability to influence student learning” (p.570). Social Cognitive Theory formed the theoretical bases for self-efficacy. Bandura who postulated Social Cognitive Theory expresses self-efficacy as “People’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances” (Bandura, 1986, p. 391). Bandura (1977) proposed a theory focus of which was self-efficacy. He started with the separation of efficacy expectations and outcome expectations. “An outcome expectancy is defined as a person’s estimate that a given behavior will lead to certain outcomes. An efficacy expectation is the conviction that one can successfully execute the behavior required to produce the outcomes” (p.193). Teaching Self-efficacy Teaching efficacy is defined as “teachers’ belief or conviction that they can influence how well students learn, even those who may be difficult or unmotivated” (Guskey & Passaro, 1994, p.4, cited in Tschannen- Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998). Teaching efficacy is one of the important research areas (Bandura, 1977). It is subject-specific. A teacher may have high self-efficacy in one subject, however, may not have positive judgments about his/her teaching abilities in another one. Therefore, instruments which measure teaching self-efficacy should be specific for a subject or an area (Bandura, 1997). Literature Review In the literature some of the studies compared in-service and pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. For example, Tschannen- Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2007) examined whether there was a difference between novice and experienced teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs by measuring with Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES). The sample involved (N = 255) teachers, however, some of them (n = 74) were novice teachers who had three-year experience or less. Results showed that contextual factors had more impact on novice teachers’ belief than that of experienced ones. Additionally, in both subscales, efficacy for instructional strategy and efficacy for classroom management, experienced teachers’ means were higher than those of novice teachers. The researchers attributed the difference to the amount of mastery experience which they had. Sevgi Aydın, Yezdan Boz 909 Correlations showed that teaching resources was the variable which had the highest correlation with novice teachers’ teaching self-efficacy beliefs, r (72) = .32, p < .05. Although teaching resources was a good predictor of novice teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, it was not a predictor of the experienced teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs in teaching. Another type of research related to teaching self-efficacy is the relationship between pre-service elementary science teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and their alternative conceptions. Schoon and Boone (1998) studied with (N=619) upper level undergraduate pre-service teachers. To determine the participants’ alternative conceptions, a multiple-choice test and STEBI-B were administered. Results revealed that the higher score the participants had in the achievement test, the higher PSTE score they had. Like Schoon and Boone (1998), Tekkaya, Cakiroglu and Ozkan (2002) examined pre-service elementary science teachers’ understanding of science, self-efficacy in science teaching and the relationship between them. Data was gathered from pre-service science teachers (N = 299). The instruments used in the study were STEBI-B and Science Concept Test (SCT) including 40 multiple-choice items. The mean was low (M = 16.96) for 40 items, which means participants could not answer more than half of the questions correctly. However, their teaching self-efficacy beliefs were high in both PSTE (M = 49.3, SD = 7.4) and STOE (M = 36.3, SD = 5.5). Moreover, there was a significant correlation between science understanding and PSTE scores, r (297) = .14, p < .05. In light of the results, researchers advised that to educate the teachers who are eager to teach science, science teaching efficacy beliefs should be enhanced. In some of the studies self-efficacy beliefs of pre-service and in-service teachers in different countries were examined. In Campbell’s (1996) research, the difference between in-service and pre-service teachers’ teachers’ selfefficacy beliefs in teaching were examined in Scotland and America (N =213). There were Scottish pre-service (n=34) and in-service teachers (n = 39) and American pre-service (n =35) and in-service teachers (n = 32) in the study. Two-way ANOVA results showed that there was no significant difference between American and Scottish teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. Additionally, inservice teachers’ self-efficacy was significantly higher than that of pre-service teachers in both countries. A similar research was conducted by Cakiroglu, Cakiroglu and Boone (2005). In the study, the self-efficacy beliefs of Turkish and American preservice elementary science teachers were compared. STEBI-B was administered to Turkish (N =100) and American teachers (N = 79). Results showed that American pre-service teachers had significantly higher PSTE scores than Turkish counterparts (F (1,175) = 7.19, p<.05) unlike Campbell (1996). However, the effect size was small (η2 = .049). For STOE sub-scale, there was 910 Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Teaching Self-Efficacy Beliefs no significant difference between Turkish and American participants. In terms of gender, no significant difference was found in terms of country for both PSTE (F (1,175) = 1.11, p <.05) and STOE (F (1,175) = 0.264, p <.05). The researchers stressed that due to the fact that pre-service teachers will be a teacher in the future, in programs for teacher education, their self-efficacy beliefs in teaching should be taken into consideration. Still another kind of the research related to self-efficacy, self-efficacy was correlated with another construct, for instance, Coladarci (1992) examined the relation between teachers’ self-efficacy and their commitment to teaching. TES was adapted to measure self-efficacy and a five-point Likert type questionnaire to measure commitment to teaching was utilized. The data were gathered from in-service teachers (N = 170). In light of the results, it can be concluded that there was a significant and positive correlation between personal efficacy and commitment (r(168) = .25, p < .05), and between general efficacy and commitment (r(168) = . 31, p < .05). Moreover, regression analysis revealed that personal and general efficacy were significant predictors of commitment to teaching. Purpose of the Research In light of the literature mentioned above, the purpose of the research is twofold. The first purpose is to determine the level of pre-service elementary science teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. The second purpose is to examine the effect of school experience and gender on teaching self-efficacy is the second purpose of the study. Method Population and Sample STEBI-B was administered to pre-service elementary science teachers enrolled in a university. They all took university entrance exam and chose elementary science teaching education department. Additionally, the scale was administered to all grades in this program. The sample included 162 pre-service science teachers, 50 females and 112 males. Instrument STEBI-B was developed by Enochs and Riggs (1990). It was translated and adapted into Turkish in 2002 by Tekkaya, Cakiroglu and Ozkan. Personal Science Teaching Efficacy (PSTE) and Science Teaching Outcome Expectancy (STOE) are two sub-scales of the STEBI-B. It is a five-point Likert type instrument ranging from 1 meaning “strongly disagree” to 5 meaning “strongly agree”. PSTE has 13 items while STOE has 10 items. After reversing the Sevgi Aydın, Yezdan Boz 911 negative items, high score in PSTE indicates high self-efficacy in science teaching. Likely, high score in STOE means high outcome expectancy for science teaching. Scores in PSTE are between 13 and 65. The scores for STOE are between 10 and 50. Analysis of Data In the analysis of the data gathered, Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used. 2x2 MANOVA was run using gender and grade as independent variables. A critical value of .05 was utilized in the determination of the mean differences. Results Results showed that self-efficacy beliefs of pre-service teachers are generally moderate for PSTE (M = 51.2, SD = 7.47) and STOE (M = 36.71, SD = 5.98). Results showed that there was not a significant interaction between gender and number of school experience course taken on pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy variables. Results revealed that there was a significant difference between the females’ and males’ self-efficacy beliefs in science teaching (F(2,159)= 4.11, p<.05). The effect size was small (pη2= .051). To determine whether there was a difference in both sub-scale or not, tests of between subject effects were examined. Results revealed that there was a significant difference on STOE sub-scale, F(1, 160) = 6.516, p<. 05. Girls’ STOE mean (M =40.05, SD = 1.50) was higher than boys’ mean (M = 35.90, SD =1.13). Although males’ means on PSTE was higher than that of females, there was no significant difference between them. Secondly, the difference in terms of number of school experience course taken was examined. The analysis showed that there was not a significant mean difference between self-efficacy beliefs of pre-service teachers who took school experience course in different number. (F(6, 155)= 1.26, p<. 05). Conclusion and Discussion Descriptive statistics showed that pre-service science teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs were moderate for both PSTE and STOE. Studies conducted on the relationship between teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and their interaction with students (Allinder, 1994), students’ achievement and motivation (TschannenMoran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007), commitment to teaching (Coladarci, 1992) and persistence (Gibson & Dembo, 1984) indicated the importance of teachers’ efficacy beliefs. Results of the research in the literature did not indicate a consensus on the gender difference in self-efficacy (Gencer & Cakiroglu, 2005). In Sarikaya 912 Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Teaching Self-Efficacy Beliefs (2004), Cakiroglu et al. (2005) and Gencer and Cakiroglu (2005), there was no significant difference between females’ and males’ teaching self-efficacy beliefs. However, Bleicher (2004) found a significant difference between males’ and females’ PSTE scores. In that study, males’ score was higher than that of females. However, according to the result of this study, female pre-service teachers’ science teaching outcome expectancy (STOE) was higher than that of males. Kalaian and Freeman (1994) attributed these difference to nature of the teaching which is female-dominant (cited in Gencer & Cakiroglu, 2005). In terms of school experience, there was not a significant difference between participants’ self-efficacy beliefs in science teaching. The reason may be related to the effectiveness of the course. Unfortunately, pre-service teachers do not have enough chance to teach. Enochs, Scharman and Riggs (1995) suggested that pre-service teachers should be given more chance to experience in real context. Precautions should be taken to prevent these shortcomings. Therefore, the effectiveness of the school experience and teaching experience courses should be enhanced. Finally, Campbell (1996) stated that self-efficacy in teaching should be part of the teacher education program. Instructors in faculty of education should be aware of the significance of the pre-service teachers’ belief; moreover, activities should be integrated to the teacher education programs to increase self-efficacy beliefs of them. As a future study, in order to understand the reasons of pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, research should also include qualitative parts such as interviews with pre-service teachers and observations of their practice in schools and teaching experience courses as suggested in Charalambous, Philippou and Kyriakides (2008). References Allinder, R. M. (1994). The relation between efficacy and the instructional practices of special education teachers and consultants, Teacher Education and Special Education, 17, 86-95. Ashton, P. T. (1990). Editorial. Journal of Teacher Education, 44, 2. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Bandura, A (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman Sevgi Aydın, Yezdan Boz 913 Bleicher, R. E. (2004). Revisiting the STEBI-B: Measuring self-efficacy in Preservice elementary teachers. School Science and Mathematics, 104, 383391. Cakiroglu, J., Cakiroglu, E., & Boone, W. J. (2005). Pre-service teacher selfefficacy beliefs regarding science teaching: A comparison of pre-service teachers in Turkey and the USA. Science Educator, 14, 31-40. Campbell, J. (1996). A comparison of teacher efficacy for pre and inservice teachers’ in Scotland and America. Education, 117, 2-11. Coladarci, T. (1992). Teachers’ sense of efficacy and commitment to teaching. Journal of Experimental Education, 60, 323-337. Charalambous, C. Y., Philippou, G. N., & Kyriakides, L. (2008) Tracing the development of pre-service teachers’ efficacy beliefs in teaching mathematics during fieldwork. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 67, 125-142. Enochs, L. G., & Riggs, I. M. (1990). Further development of an elementary science teaching efficacy belief instrument: A pre-service elementary scale. School Science and Mathematics, 90, 694-706. Enochs, L. G., Scharman, L. C., & Riggs, I. M. (1995). The relation of pupil control to Pre-service elementary science teacher self-efficacy and outcome expectancy. Science Teacher Education, 79, 63-75. Gencer, A. S., & Cakiroglu, J. (2005). Turkish pre-service science teachers’ efficacy beliefs regarding science teaching and their beliefs about classroom management. Teaching and Teaching Education, 23, 664-675. Gibson, S., & Dembo, M. H. (1984). Teacher efficacy: A construct validation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 569- 582. Sarikaya, H. (2004). Pre-service elementary teachers’ science knowledge, attitude toward science teaching and their efficacy beliefs regarding science teaching. Unpublished master’s thesis, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey. Schoon, K. J., & Boone, W. J. (1998). Self-efficacy and alternative conceptions of science of pre-service elementary teachers. Science Education, 82, 553-568. Tekkaya, C., Cakiroglu, J., & Ozkan, O. (2002). Turkish pre-service science teachers’ understanding of science and their confidence in teaching it. Journal of Education for Teaching, 30, 57-68. 914 Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Teaching Self-Efficacy Beliefs Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68, 202-248. Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2007). The differential antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs of novice and experienced teachers. Teaching and teacher Education, 23, 944-956. Preservice Teachers as Developmental Readers: Life Histories Hakan Dedeoğlu, Hacettepe University – Turkey Abstract This research investigates authobiographical life histories of pre-service teachers in an undergraduate children’s literature class regarding their experiences with reading. Students written authobiographical narratives describing their development as readers were analzed by using a framework namely political analysis (Hatch (2002)) in this qualitative study. The following themes emerged from the students’ papers; early reading experiences inside and outside of school environments; favorite books; why we are reader or nonreader; who read to us as an infant, toddler, preschooler, and elementary school student; teachers throughout our schooling who fostered a love of reading and those who did not; and the strategies that helped us become an avid reader or discouraged avid reading. Key words: Reading, reading habits, literacy, narrative analysis, teacher education Introduction Ozen (2001) describes our nation as “a nation who does not like to read” and a“nation of readers who do not read”. Bayram’s (2001) research on the reading habits of 504 people including different educational levels and occupations from Istanbul shows 61% of the patricipants describe themselves as not readers. Ozen and Bayram and other researchers (Bircan, Ismail & Tekin, 1990; Ozdemirci, 1990) who looked for the reading habits of Turkish people indicate that the amount of reading done in Istanbul was very low. Not different from the nation, our current teachers have similar attitudes toward reading. A report on the reading profile of teachers by an education union (Egitim-sen, 1998) indicates that 36% of our teachers read only one book and only 28% of them buy a book in a month. Like us, teacher educators are stunned to find that so many Turkish students have no use for reading other than as an academic obligation, Applegate and Aplegate (2004) ask what if a 916 Preservice Teachers as Developmental Readers: Life Histories significant number of the teachers of the future had no love of reading themselves? As they stated, “For these students, we had to lay down the foundation of a love of reading that we had hoped to find and build upon” (p.555) The purpose of this study was to examine the early reading experiences of preservice teachers. As the teacher canditates write, discuss and remember their own reading experiences, it is hoped that these reflections will inform their own future practice in their classrooms. It is important for students who are becoming teachers to be aware of and become enthusiastic about reading so they can pass this joy of reading on to their students. Literature Review A growing body of knowledge on early literacy is referred to as emergent, family or home literacy for researchers. This research base is the foundation on which our study is grounded and therefore we will focus on early literacy in the literature review section. In addition to knowledge on early literacy, researchers can find many studies on preservice teachers and literacy narratives, as well as preservice teachers’ perceptions about literacy. Our experiences with reading do not begin with formal reading and writing instruction; most of us become familiar with the nature and functions of reading long before our first day in school, through observing and participating in literacy activities in our homes. The research on the early literacy experiences points out the importance of home literacy and children’s literacy development. Tracey and Morrow (2007) describe the theories of literacy development in their book titled “Lenses on Reading; an Introduction to Theories and Models” “First used by the Marie Clay (1966) the term “emergent literacy” refers to a period in a child’s life between birth and when the child can read and write at a conventional (approximately third-grade) level. It is important to remember that the term “emergent literacy” refers to a functional level of performance rather than to a chronological age. (p.85) Morrow (2005) lists a set of beliefs regarding the ways in which children’s early literacy development occurs from an emergent literacy perspective: • Children’s development in the areas of listening, speaking, reading, and writing are all interrelated • Literacy development start at the birth and is continuous and ongoing and it also emphasizes the the critical role that children’s home environments have on the development of these abilities Hakan Dedeoğlu 917 MacDonell (2004) summarizes the results of the huge body of research on reading that that includes how we acquire reading and how important reading is to our academic and future career achievements. MacDonell finds that, The best predictor of how well a child will do in high school is how well they read in Grade 1. Readers are better writers. Readers score higher on reading tests. Readers get better jobs. Exposure to early reading experiences can actually increase IQ. Good readers acquire second languages more easily. It is really important for educators to realize that not all children have rich experiences with literacy during their childhood. Both families and schools should share responsibilities at this point to support the children who have had limited exposure to early literacy experiences. Janice Wearmouth (2004) explains that if families and schools are to work together to support the learning of students who experience difficulties in literacy development, it is crucial that educators have a clear view of how to establish home–school links in ways that take account of: the ability of families from a diversity of social and cultural backgrounds to support children’s literacy acquisition; the home–school power relationships that are implied by different partnership models; the rationale for, and model of literacy associated with particular programmes and interventions. (p.6) These acoounts point to the fact that parents from every social class are often keen to help their children with reading at home. From this standpoint there appears to be a strong rationale for believing that many families across the social scale may have the potential to offer additional resources in supporting the literacy acquisition of children who experience difficulties. Methodology The purpose of this study is to examine early literacy experiences of college preservice teachers who are enrolled in a children’s literature course using autobiographical literacy narratives and classroom discussions. To accomplish this inquiry we used the research methods of a qualitative study. The term qualitative is used in a broad way to refer several research strategies to gather and analyze data (Bogdan and Biklen, 1992). In this study, 918 Preservice Teachers as Developmental Readers: Life Histories we inquired as teacher researchers about our own college classrooms and students as Short (1993) stated: ‘Teacher research at the college level will help college educators to grasp more fully the potential of the theories and frameworks being implemented in public schools for transforming their own teacher education programs and classrooms” (p.156). Student narratives were an essential part of this study. Wilson and Ritchre, (1994) remind us to remember the nature of stories, stating that “they are not neutral objects” (p.187) and “they invite us –even command us- into relationship with their tellers” (p.187). Using students’ voices in their narrative stories provides a description that is detailed and rich. Such a rich narrative enables our study to match the criteria for trustworthiness set by Lincoln and Guba (1985) and part of establishing trustworthiness for the study involves transferability. We asked our students to write a reflexive paper on their development as readers during the first week of classes. Through small group and whole class discussions they shared their stories in the class during the following week. We provided a handout to share with students that highlights the results of our analysis later in the semester. 125 students from four sections of children’s literature courses, 86 female and 37 male, all sophomores, participated in this study. We provided students a guideline to give them ideas for their papers: Write a short autobiographical paper on your life history with regard to reading. Think about your development as a reader. You might interview with your family members on your early reading experiences and reflect upon your life as a reader inside and outside of school environments. Try to remember any favorite books, mention teachers throughout your schooling who fostered a love of reading and those who did not, discuss the strategies that helped you become an avid reader or discouraged avid reading. Even if students’ papers included their experiences from birth to current years we focused only on their narratives from birth to end of elementary school years as they will become elementary school teachers. The following section includes the five broad categories, including definition of categories and selected subtexts from students’ narratives, and related research highlights for each category that resulted from our analysis. Home Environments that Support (or do not support) Reading In our students’ narratives, 40 students stated they had home environments that did not support reading. Many were willing to read, but had to wait until first grade to learn because there were no books in their home environment. It Hakan Dedeoğlu 919 was not surprising that many students stated that they met with books in first grade in their narratives. As the literacy narratives of the whole group were analyzed, it was apparent that the majority of our participants had negative memories about their early literacy experiences at home. One student recalled: “Actually it is all about my home environment. Both my parents were illiterate. And no one encouraged me to read. I never had a bookcase and even if I wanted to read there was no chance to find a book around us.” Another student wrote: “There were no books at our home except mom’s cooking books and my older brother’s school books.” It was common that many of the participants mentioned the lack of preschool experiences, illiterate family members, and poor home environment. One student wrote: “I did not have a chance to go prescool before the first grade and I did not have siblings whose reading materials I could use. That’s why I met with books when I start to first grade.” 18 students stated they had supporting home environments in their narratives, but many of them mentioned their parents’ occupations as teachers that we might assume would result in a home with natural access to reading materials. Discussing their positive home environments some students related it to the reading materiels at home, one student wrote, “When I was a child “Turkiye” newspaper which we were getting daily, was giving books as a promotion. Each day we were getting a biography of Ottoman Sultans. That was the series of books (that) got me into reading.” Some other students related it to the shared reading and telling stories, a student wrote, “When I was 6–7 years old on a certain nights of week we read stories together with whole family. I had a chance to catch the real beauties of the books.” Another student wrote, “Each night before the bed my grandmother told me stories and told me when I learn to read I can read all the stories in the books. These converstaions made me wonder and very enthusiastic about the books.” Having siblings of school age was a positive effect on many students in terms of their home environment. Having a sibling in school provided some participants with access to books. A student wrote, “I did not have a chance to meet with books before my older sisters’ first year in the school.” Lack of exposure to reading aloud, lack of parents encouraging literacy behaviors, and lack of reading materials at hand were the most commonly cited reasons for many students in their narratives to explain the low level of literacy activities at home. 920 Preservice Teachers as Developmental Readers: Life Histories Role Models Table 1: Indicates the number of students who reported in their narratives to have role models for reading. Role Models for Reading Role Models Parents Number of future teachers 33 Classroom teachers 31 Siblings 21 Language arts teachers 23 Relatives (Uncles; Grandparents; Cousins) 11 Friends 10 Total 129 Both fathers and mothers are mentioned as role models in students’ narratives. A student wrote about her father and sister; “The first person who encouraged me on reading was my father. He says he learns life from books. Before I was able to read, I was watching him and my older sister while they read and I was jeolus of my sister and her books.” Another student mentioned his/her parent, “In my preschool years, I always remember my father reading a paper, and mom reading her favorite book in the evenings. That made me very curious about books. When they realized my curiosity about books they bought me some picture books and that made me very happy.” And one student expressed her reading attitudes coming from her mother, “If I am a good reader now, I owe it to my mother and my classroom teacher who did or put the award on readings. My mom always read a book when she had a time instead of watching TV. Because of her, reading covers big part of my life.” Classroom teachers and language art teachers were the second groups of role models. A student pointed to both an elementary classroom teacher and a middle school language arts teacher as being influential in her desire to read. This student wrote, “My classroom teacher and language art teacher during middle school years were good role models for me to gain reading habits. I did not get enough support from my family because there was nobody in my family who had a positive view of reading.” Many students mentioned the name of their teahers as role models that they do not forget; “I had the biggest support from my classroom teacher … on the way to becoming a reader.” Siblings, relatives and friends were also mentioned as positive role models. Hakan Dedeoğlu 921 Lack of exposure of positive role models was also included in some narratives. A student wrote that; “No one, neither family members nor my teachers had encouraged me on reading.” Access to Reading Materials Classroom libraries, school libraries, book cases at homes, daily newspapers and magazines, personel books (The importance of owning books) and gifts as books were the main key areas for our students to access the books that they mentioned in their narratives. Classroom, school and home libraries were the source of books for many students. Students could get the books from classroom libraries. One student stated, “We had a classroom library when I was in first grade. It was filled full of books. I borrowed books and returned them when I finished.” Another student indicated that public libraries were a book source and stated, “I was going to the public library regulary to read daily newspapers, because we were not buying newspapers.” For many of them home was the first place for books. A student wrote, “As a classroom teacher, my dad had a good library at home.” Another wrote, “We have a very rich library at home. And we buy a daily newspaper and a couple of magazines regularly.” And they affected them very positively, “My father’s rich library and his passion about books made me curious about books from my early years.” Owning and getting books as a gift had much more meaning for many students. A student recalled that having first books, “My dad bought me a dozen of my first books. I read all those books with enjoyment and kept them in my bookcases for years.” Another recalled the first personal book; “I bought my first book when I was in fifth grade with the money that my uncle gave me. Reading that book was such an enjoyment for me.” Another student recalled receiving gifts; “I met with book in my early years. My father’s teacher friends brought me books as gifts when they visited us.” A few students recalled their bookstore visits. A student remembered their bookstore visit with her father, “With my father we visit the bookstores and buy books. Usually my father let me chose the books that made me more comfortable and I was getting to learn more about good books.” For many students, access to books was not easy. A student described her poor school environment, “There was no school library for five years when I was in elementary school.” Another student mentioned the financial difficulties and poor libraries as, “I had not enough money to buy new books. Then, I decided to check out our school library. The books on the bookshelves were invisible from dust and they were too old.” 922 Preservice Teachers as Developmental Readers: Life Histories Reasons to Read / Reasons for decline in Reading Influences of different people were mentioned only by a few students as reasons for reading. But reading as class requirement can be found in many students’ narratives such as, “Through my schooling years I read only if I had to, such as reading for homework. It is a shame but it was true.” On the other side, many students wrote about how they interacted with books especially main characters in the stories, a student wrote, “I read Vasconcelos’s one of my favorite children’s books. In the story the protagonist was talking with a tree. It was interesting. I had a flower and I was talking with it.” Reading books from this perspective was another world for some students. They seemed to have found the right reading material, “I loved the book, “Poisonous Ivy” when I was a child. We had an ivy like flower in our garden and I was dreaming that one day that flower would take me away. A few times my mom caught us when we were having a talk.” Many students mentioned lack of reading habits, standardized exams, TV, video games, and playing with friend as reasons for decline in reading times and attitudes throughout schooling. Having difficulties with reading was a common problem for many students. These difficulties turned them into not only being poor readers but also having poor reading habits and bad attitudes toward books. A student described her experiences as; “The nightmare of being a poor reader did not leave me from the beginning of the first grade till at the end of middle school. I always tried to get away from books.” Another student wrote, “In the elementary school I tried to read couple books. I wish I had asked for some recommendations. The books I was trying to read were very hard for me, and I could not finish them. Later, I felt I was getting away from books more and more.” And another recalled, “The reading book lists provided by our classroom teachers were really on a higher level than my reading capacity. Those readings were killing my enjoyment of reading.” School Influences upon Reading Positive Influences Many students remembered using their classroom and school libraries, which had a positive impact on their reading development. A student shared her memory; “There was a small library in our classroom when I was in elementary school. A group of students were responsible for the orders and lending books. Everyone in the classroom wanted to be part of that group. I was one of them. I think that was a special place for many of us. We thought we were different than others and dealing with books was great duty for many of us.” Hakan Dedeoğlu 923 “Who is going to read most books in a month? That kind of incentine had a positive impact on my learning to read as well as gaining reading habits.” Another student shared a similar memory emphasizing the role of book clubs, “Especially during the fourth grade I was in a reading club. … Regularly I was checking who read most and I had an idea that I should read the most books in the classroom library and my name should be on the top of the reading checklists.” And another student shared, “When I entered third grade I joined a bookclub. With our teacher’s encouragement we started to spend an hour every day with books. Those turn into everyday’s must in addition to other classroom activities.” Many students in their narratives also mentioned teachers’ encouragements, awards for reading and help in finding the good books. A student remembered how her teacher encouraged them: “Our teacher put some awards and encourage us on who reads the most from classroom library. To get the award I was almost reading a book on a daily basis.” Many students mentioned the awards for reading in a positive way. A student wrote, “The best thing in my elementary school years was the reading performance tests. This way, we were trying to prepare for the next tests to read more words in a minute and if we did, we would get some awards.” Some students emphasized the importance of reading from self-selected books. A student shared, “During my elementary school years we had a reading hour with self selected books. Reading a book of my interest other than boring textbooks, I was feeling very happy.” Negative Influences It is unfortunate to note the number of students who associated reading with unpleasant events or experiences from their early schooling. Some of the experiences related to being grading on reading, homework, lack of role models, inexperienced teachers, compulsory reading lists, competion on reading, reading as punishment, summarizing readings, and course textbooks mentioned as negative influences in students’ narratives. Many students, especially those who were struggling readers, remembered being graded on readings. A student wrote, “Year by year the course textbooks were including more pages and different contexts. It was making me nervous. But, grading on readings and punishments for slow reading with more reading assignments were the worst.” Homework became more important than pleasure reading. A student remembered, “I was trying to read everything I found. Newspapers, magazines … But time went by and I had low interest in reading. I started to read only textbooks and to read for homework. Of course I was playing games with friends too.” Many students complained that their teachers were not good models for them. A student wrote, “I was not reading a lot during my elementary school 924 Preservice Teachers as Developmental Readers: Life Histories years. I wish I had a classroom teacher who read a lot and made us love to read.” Another student wrote, “None of my elementary and middle school teachers advertised good books. Or I do not remember any.” Reading should never be used as a disciplinary measure when children misbehave because if it is followed on a regular basis, reading will quickly become associated in the child’s thinking with unpleasant experiences. A student remembered how she was affected by these punishments, “We had to read a certain number of books from classroom library in a month. The lowest group would get a punishment and I was always in that group of students. I was not able to finish more than two books in a month and these punishments certainly made me not a good reader.” Finally, some of the narratives included critiues of a wider context. They questioned the education system and its purposes. A student wrote, “I was thinking that the purpose of going to school was studying hard and getting good grades on exams. When I was a student in elementary and middle school, I never thought reading was as important as math or science.” Discussion We need to know our students’ initial experiences in terms of reading and literacy when they enter college classrooms so that we can prepare them well to flourish students as lifelong readers from their school classrooms. Teacher education students come to college classrooms from a life full of experiences that have impacted the way they see themselves as readers and how they behave as readers. The table summarizes the analysis of students’ narratives as their literacy and reading related college entrance experiences.The five broad categories of narrative analysis gives us some directions to consider, some ideas for future research and clear messages on reading and literacy education. Our analysis gives us a direction to take as we reconsider how our schools work and how we can build strong home-school relationships. As Allington (1995) states: “Children work, teachers correct and grade, and no one ever discusses the work, the content, the thought, or the response. Thus, a first order of change in elementary schools must be in the kind of work that both teachers and children do. … To create thoughtful readers, children must spend a large part of the school day engaged in reading and writing.”(p.11) And he adds four principles to achieve systemic changes; • Change comes from within, not afar. • Change will not necessarily cost more money. • There are no quick fixes. • There is no one best way.”(p.12) Hakan Dedeoğlu 925 Another area that we must focus on is providing support for families and children especially parents who have low literacy skills and live in urban areas. As stated earlier researchers strongly argue that children who were read from birth have an advantage over children who come from homes where reading is not valued. Cooter lists some strategies to help mothers and low-income parents: • Emphasize strengths: Literacy educators should concentrate on what parents can do within their sociocultural contexts as much as they do with children in reading instruction. • Promote dialogic reading: Often thought of as simple picture book reading, dialogic reading has a much different face. • Increase mean length of utterance: Simply giving children models and opportunities to lengthen and elaborate sentences significantly increases their oral language ability and fosters reading development. • Talk and play: When parents set aside time to talk to their children there can be a long-term positive effect on academic literacy development. • Make-believe-alouds: Reading aloud to children is one of the most common recommendations of literacy experts (p.699-700) References Allington, Richard, McGill-Franzen, Anne (2008) Got Books? Educational Leadership, 65, (7) Allington, R. L. (1995). Literacy Lessons in the Elementary Schools: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow. In Allington, R.L. & Walmsley, S.A. (Eds.) (1995). No Quick Fix: Rethinking Literacy Programs in America’s Elementary Schools. New York: Teachers College Pres. Bayram, Servet (2001). Türkiye de kitap okuma alışkanlığı. İstanbul: İstanbul Ticaret Odası Yayınları Bialostok, S. (1992). Raising readers: Helping your child to literacy. Winnipeg:Peguis. Bircan, Ismail ve Meral Tekin. (1990). Turkiye de okuma aliskanlıgının azalmasi sorunu ve cozum yollari. A.U. Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi 22(1), 393-410. Bogdan, R.C.& Biklen, S.K. (1992). Qualitative Research for Education: An introduction to theory and methods .(2nd Ed.) Boston:Allyn & Bacon Clay, M. M. (1966). Emergent reading behavior. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Aukland, New Zealand. 926 Preservice Teachers as Developmental Readers: Life Histories Constamino, R. (2005). Print environments between high and low socioeconomic status communities. Teacher Librarian, 32(3), 22-25. Craig-Thoreson, C. & Dale, P.S. (1999). Enhancing linguistic performance: Parents and teachers as book reading partners for children with language delays. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 19, 28–39. Hatch, J.A. (2002). Doing Qualitative Research in Education Settings. New York: Sunny Hay, I., & Fielding-Barnsley, R. (2007). Facilitating children’s emergent literacy using shared reading: A comparison of two models. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 30, (3), 191–202. Krashen, S. (1993). The power of reading: Insights from the research. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Lamme, L.L. (2002). Stop Giving Kids Incentives for Reading. Reading Today, 19 (3), 16 Lincoln, Y.S. & Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. CA: Sage Lyytinen, P., Laakso, M., & Poikkeus, A. (1998). Parental contribution to child’s early language and interest in books. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 13, 297–308. MacDonell, Colleen (2004). Making the case for pleasure reading. Teacher Librarian, 31, (4). Nagy, W., Herman, P., & Anderson, R. (1985). Learning words from context. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 6-50. Ozdemirci Fahrettin (1990). Nicin az okuyoruz? Kamuoyu arastırması sonuclandı. Turk kutuphaneciligi, 4 (3), 154-155. Ozen Ferhat (2001). Turkiye de Okuma Alıskanlıgı. Ankara: Kultur Bakanlıgı. Smith, M.C.& Elish-Piper, L. (2002) Primary-grade educators and adult literacy: Some strategies for assisting low literate parents. The Reading Teacher, 56, (2), 156–165. Sonnenschein, S., Baker, L., Serpell, R. & Schmidt, D. (2000) Reading is a source of entertainment: the importance of the home perspective for children’s literacy development, in: K. A. Roskos & J. F. Christie (Eds) Play and literacy in early childhood: research from multiple perspectives NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum, 107–124. Hakan Dedeoğlu 927 Teale, W.H. (1986). Home background and young children’s literacy development. In W.H. Teale & E. Sulzby (Eds.), Emergent literacy: Reading and writing. (pp. 173–206). NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Tracey, D.H. & Morrow, L. M. (2007). Lenses on Reading; An Introduction To Theories and Models. New York: The Guilford Pres Wendelin, K., & Zinc, R. (1983). How students make book choices. Reading Horizons, 23, 84-88. Wearmouth Janice (2004). Issues in addressing children’s difficulties in literacy development through family–school Partnerships. The Curriculum Journal, 15, (1). White, K.R. (1982). The relation between socioeconomic status and academic achievement. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 461-481. Wilson, D.E. & Ritchie, J.S.(1994). ResistancE, Revision, and Presentation: Narrative in Teacher Education, English Education, 26(3), 177-188 Student Teachers’ Professional Competencies as a Teacher Fatma Türk, Atilla Çimer, Karadeniz Technical University Abstract The aim of this study was to determine secondary school student teachers’ professional competencies and to advance a proposal for teacher education. The study was carried out with 28 biology, 20 chemistry, 21 mathematics and 19 physics student teachers from fifth grade in Fatih Faculty of Education at Karadeniz Technical University in Trabzon. Survey research design was employed as research method. A questionnaire is developed by using Wisconsin Teaching Standards. Data were analyzed quantitatively. Findings of the research showed that students need support in following situations; engaging in professional discourse about children’s learning of their disciplines, designing instruction that helps use students’ strengths as the bases for their growth and learning, giving value to short- and long-term planning with colleagues, using multiple measures to assess student learning and understanding laws related to students’ rights and teacher responsibilities. To overcome these problems; student teachers’ should be faced to real teacher experiences which enables them to solve similar problems in their teaching, be encouraged for doing academic surveys about students learning. Moreover courses should be given about multiple assessments, laws of students’ rights and teacher responsibilities. Key words: Teacher education, professional competencies, teacher standards. Introduction In recent years, a multitude of professional development programmes and models of delivery have been promoted in an effort to improve educational practice (Richardson and Placier, 2001 from Grammatikopoulos et all, 2008). Professional development composed of student teachers’ career competence and certainty. Career competence refers to student teachers’ perceptions of their capacity to effectively fill their professional roles (Tschannen-Moran, WoolfolkHoy, & Hoy, 1998), and career certainty refers to the confidence they have in their decision to become professional teachers. By taking into account both the 930 Student Teachers’ Professional Competencies as a Teacher practical component of being able to succeed in the profession as well as the cognitive component of allegiance to the profession, we believe career competence and career certainty both represent important elements of commitment to the teaching profession. Bandura(1986) claim that self-efficacy is a person’s belief about his or her ability to produce certain outcomes, and these beliefs determine whether or not and how a task is pursued. Bandura (1994) suggested that a strong sense of selfefficacy enhances an individual’s sense of accomplishment and determines whether or not an individual perceives a task as a reachable or an unreachable goal. Ashton (1985) defined teaching self-efficacy in terms of teachers’ perception of their abilities to positively influence student learning. According to Ashton and Webb (1986), teachers who reported a higher sense of teaching self-efficacy had students with higher levels of academic achievement, instructional environments that were more responsive to students’ needs, more confidence working with lower performing students, and positive results from cooperative, small-group activities (Brand and Wilkins 2007). Purposes of the Study In this research survey research design was employed. Aim of the research was to determine secondary school student teachers’ professional competencies and to advance a proposal for secondary science and math teacher education. The aim was full fit with survey research design as its nature. Research data were gathered with questionnaire which was developed by using Wisconsin Teaching Standards. Methodology In this part used research design, sample, data collection tool, data collection procedure, data analyse, validity, limitations and ethics were presented. Survey research is one of the most important areas of measurement in applied social research. The broad area of survey research encompasses any measurement procedures that involve asking questions of participants. It is an efficient way of collecting information from a large number of respondents. Very large samples are possible. Statistical techniques can be used to determine validity, reliability, and statistical significance. Surveys can be divided into two broad categories: the questionnaire and the interview. Questionnaires are usually paper-and-pencil instruments that the participant completes. Questionnaire was composed of two parts; first part was prepared as a 4-item Likert scale (is composed of 51 competency items) four-stage of competencies were: Needs help, Not sufficient, Sufficient, Absolutely sufficient and second part was two-open-ended question.. It was prepared by one of researcher and Fatma Türk, Atilla Çimer 931 was examined by an expert for validity. Its readability was tested with five student teachers and three research assistants. The study was carried out with 28 biology, 20 chemistry, 21 mathematics and 19 physics student teachers from fifth grade in Fatih Faculty of Education at Karadeniz Technical University in Trabzon. Second term of fifth grade was last term of student teacher. At the end of this term they graduate as a teacher. So this is why we carried out research with them, because they are secondary school science and mathematics teachers of immediate future. One of researcher administered questionnaire to the student teachers in their own classes in personal. By this way participants (student teachers) could ask questions about the study and get clarification on what is to be done and answered through that. Data were mostly analysed quantitatively. Student teachers were asked two open ended questions these data were analysed qualitatively. Student teachers only answered questionnaire there was no feedback, data were gathered in one way. Even researcher tried to reply student teachers’ questions and to make clear understanding there may be some misunderstandings. These were limitations of research. On the other hand some ethics were considered; student teachers’ names were not made public, student teachers were not forced to participate in research. Findings and Discussions In this part research findings were presented. Descriptive definitions presented from the first part and these finding were supported with second part’s findings. In this research, researchers aimed to determine secondary school student teachers’ professional competencies and to advance a proposal for secondary science and math teacher education. For this purpose, student teachers’ competencies were displayed by administering questionnaire. Questionnaire was prepared by using Wisconsin Teaching Standards. It was consisted of ten standards which were included five or six item in. Totally fifty one items about standards and two open ended questions which were asked “What are your sufficient and insufficient features as a teacher?” and “What kind of course or activity would be beneficial for your training (education) program?” were in questionnaire. For better understanding standards were coded. There are standards and codes below in table 1. 932 Student Teachers’ Professional Competencies as a Teacher Table 1: Teaching Standards Standard1 The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the disciplines he or she teaches and can create learning experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for students. Standard2 The teacher understands how children with broad ranges of ability learn and provides instruction that supports their intellectual, social, and personal development. Standard3 The teacher understands how students differ in their approaches to learning and the barriers that impede learning and can adapt instruction to meet the diverse needs of students, including those with disabilities and exceptionalities. Standard4 The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies, including the use of technology to encourage children’s development of critical thinking, problem solving, and performance skills. Standard5 The teacher uses an understanding of individual and group motivation and behavior to create a learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self- motivation. Standard6 The teacher uses effective verbal and nonverbal communication techniques as well as instructional media and technology to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom. Standard7 The teacher organizes and plans systematic instruction based upon knowledge of subject matter, students, the community, and curriculum goals. Standard8 The teacher understands and uses formal and informal assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of the student. Standard9 The teacher is a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effect of his or her choices and actions on pupils, parents/families, professionals in the learning community and others and who actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally. Standard10 The teacher fosters relationships with school colleagues, parents/families, and agencies in the larger community to support student learning and well being and who acts with integrity, fairness and in an ethical manner. From now on only codes of standards will be used. Descriptive Statistics on Standards After data were gathered, researchers determined what student teachers’ priority needs as a teacher. For doing that, student teachers’, who chose one of these two stages (needs help, not sufficient), responses were taken into account. 933 Fatma Türk, Atilla Çimer Table 2: Student Teachers’ Priority Needs Standards Frequency (mean of items) Percentage (%) of 88 Student Teacher 1 30,6 34,77 * 2 11,4 12,95 3 20 22,73 * 4 10,8 12,27 5 15,6 17,73 6 12 13,64 7 24 27,27 * 8 19,8 22,50 * 9 25,6 29,09 * 10 23,2 26,36 * *: More than %20 Student Teacher As it is seen in table 2; 34,77% of student teachers need help about standard 1, 22,73% of student teachers need help about standard 3, 27,27% of student teachers need help about standard 7, 22,50% of student teachers need help about standard 8, 29,09% of student teachers need help about standard 9 and 26,36% of student teachers need help about standard 10. Open-ended question 1: Student teachers asked “What are your insufficient features as a teacher?” their responses were coded. Table 3: Insufficient Features of Student Teachers Insufficient Features Frequency of 88 Student Teachers Biology Chemistry Mathematics Physics Total 1 Knowledge of discipline 11 5 3 6 25 2 Implementation of knowledge (in high school classes) 5 4 7 7 23 3 Meet different students’ divers needs 7 7 8 2 24 4 Choose and develop suitable strategies for instructions 6 7 3 2 18 934 Student Teachers’ Professional Competencies as a Teacher As we understand from the table 3 student teachers feel deficient themselves about; knowledge of discipline (28,4%), implementation of knowledge (in high school classes classroom experiments)(26,1%), meet different students’ divers needs (27,3%) and choose and develop suitable strategies for instructions (20,5%). Some results of second part of questionnaire are coherent with first part; Standard 1 is; “The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the disciplines he or she teaches and can create learning experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for students.” Some responds of open ended questions are (Insufficient feature 1); “… sometimes I feel that I forgot physics because we have not seen physics for one and half year. It makes me uncomfortable…” (p-3). “… we need more information about our own discipline. In last tree terms we focused on pedagogical subjects. I think we also need extra ‘high school biology’ course it would help us to associate high school biology and university biology…” (b-17). Standard 3 is; “The teacher understands how students differ in their approaches to learning and the barriers that impede learning and can adapt instruction to meet the diverse needs of students, including those with disabilities and exceptionalities.” Some responds of open ended questions are (Insufficient feature 3); “… I think we should take a course that emphasizes different students. We know that all students do not have same qualifications and do not learn in same ways but I’m not sure about how I can realize them. So I need a course that provides me understanding of different students, differences between their learning and understanding…” (m-15). “… we should prepare supplementary materials on each subject in chemistry by this way we can be ready for every kind students…” (c-8). Standard 7 is; “The teacher organizes and plans systematic instruction based upon knowledge of subject matter, students, the community, and curriculum goals.” Some responds of open ended questions are (Insufficient feature 4); “… I learnt a lot of strategies and techniques to generate different materials but I can not decide easily which is best when and how I can organize instruction…” (b-11). Fatma Türk, Atilla Çimer 935 “… sometimes I’m uncertain about planning instruction. I can not be sure about which strategy I should choose or how should combine materials that I use. Also we need different types environment (likewise different schools, students, places etc.) by this way we can learn to plan our instruction according to different situations…” (c-14). Open-ended question 2: Student teachers asked “What kind of course or activity would be beneficial for your training (education) program?” their responses were as below; “Communication is important in schools. If you want to be a good teacher you should have good relationships with students, other teachers, school director, parents etc. By this way you can feel yourself as a teacher otherwise you are a foreigner at that school…” (c-17). Similarly to this in the first part of questionnaire 26,36% student teachers need help about standard 10. Standard 10 is; “The teacher fosters relationships with school colleagues, parents/families, and agencies in the larger community to support student learning and well being and who acts with integrity, fairness and in an ethical manner.” Other literature also emphasizes the importance of relationship. “McNally et al. (1994), in a study investigating the interactions between student teachers and school staff and their relationship to successful processes of becoming teachers, found that supportive relationships in secondary schools centered around subject departments, and that trainees who were judged to be relatively competent reported feeling part of a team (Hewson et al., 2008)”. “I think we need to learn more about alternative assessment and evaluation techniques. As I understand from courses they are important especially for a curriculum like ours. Because we emphasize the importance of learning process in our new curriculum and we can not assess and evaluate that with traditional techniques (like multiple-choice test)…” (b-5). Similarly to this in the first part of questionnaire 22,50% student teachers need help about standard 8. Standard 8 is; “The teacher understands and uses formal and informal assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of the student.” “In my view knowledge of discipline and pedagogical knowledge have same importance in teaching we can not apart them from each other. Also I think we should take their courses together…” (m-18). Other literature also emphasizes the importance of that knowledge “If chemistry is to be taught successfully, teachers must have good subject matter knowledge of the ideas with which they are dealing. They must also have a good 936 Student Teachers’ Professional Competencies as a Teacher pedagogic content knowledge and the ability to communicate to students (Justi and Gilbert 2002)”. Student teachers also offered; to have long-term training course Boz and Boz (2006) also offer similar and claim that student teachers could not link the theory and practice because of having not to enough experiments in high schools. Conclusions and Implications Student teachers think that subject knowledge and pedagogical knowledge should be given together (not like 3,5+1,5 system ). They think theory of subject, laboratory of subject (subject knowledge) and educational courses (pedagogical knowledge) in same terms. Danish teacher education system is much like to the system which student teachers want. Student teachers’ third insufficient feature is implementation of knowledge in high school classes. They think one term training (in other two terms; they are mostly observer) is not enough for being a teacher. Teacher training courses should be rearranged by considering student teachers’ need. Hobson (2002) argued that all student teachers value classroom experiments and learning from trial and error in the classroom. Student teachers heed to meet different students need so they want to learn different techniques and strategies but not in same way all the time. Educator should teach techniques and strategies by using them. By this way student teachers can see applied form of theoretical knowledge and that enable them to relate theory and practice. References Ashton, P. T. (1985). Motivation and the teacher’s sense of efficacy. In C. Ames & R. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education: The classroom milieu (Vol. 2, pp. 141–174). Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Ashton, P.T. and Webb, R.B. (1986). Making a difference: Teacher’s sense of efficacy and student achievement. New York: Longman. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Brand, B.R. and Wilkins, J.L.M. (2007). Using Self-Efficacy as a Construct for Evaluating Science and Mathematics Methods Courses. Journal of Science Teacher Education. Vol.18. pp. 297–317. Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71–81). New York: Academic Press. Fatma Türk, Atilla Çimer 937 Boz, N and Boz, Y. (2006). Do prospective teachers get enough experience in school placements? Journal of Education for Teaching. Vol. 32, No. 4, pp. 353–368. Daniels, L.M., Clifton, R.A., Perry, R.P., Mandzuk, D. and Hall, N.C. (2006). Student teachers’ competence and career certainty: The effects of career anxiety and perceived control. Social Psychology of Education. Vol. 9, pp. 405–423. Grammatikopoulos, V., Zachopoulou, Z., Tsangaridou, N., Liukkonen, J. and Pickup, I. (2008). Applying Mixed Method Design to Evaluate Training Seminars Within an Early Chilhood Education Project. Evaluation And Research In Education Vol. 21, No. 1 Hewson, A.J., Malderez, A., Tracey, L., Giannakaki, M., Pell, G. and Tomlinson, P.D. (2008). Student teachers’ experiences of initial teacher preparation in England: core themes and variation. Research Papers in Education 1–27, iFirst Article. Hobson, A.J. (2002). Student Teachers’ Perceptions of School-based Mentoring in Initial Teacher Training (ITT) Mentoring & Tutoring, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 5-20. Justi, R.S. and Gilbert, J.K. (2002). Philosophy of chemistry in university chemical education The case of models and modelling. Foundations of Chemistry Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 213–240. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. McNally, J., Cope, P., Inglis, B. and Stronach, I. (1994). Current realities in the student teaching experience: A preliminary inquiry. Teaching and Teacher Education Vol.10, No. 2, pp. 219–230. Richardson, V. and Placier, P. (2001) Teacher change. In V. Richardson (ed.) Handbook of Research in Teaching (4th edn) (pp. 905 947). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association. Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk-Hoy, A., and Hoy, W.K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68, pp. 202–208. Teacher’s Perceptions of Organizational Support, Beliefs of Self-Efficacy and Burnout Cevat Celep, Elif Abat, Kocaeli University – Turkey Filiz Özsoy, Teacher – Turkey Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine the relationships between perceived organizational supports, beliefs of self-efficacy and burnout among teachers. The population of the study was the primary school teachers working in Kocaeli and Istanbul. The sample of the study consists of 510 primary school teachers. Data was collected using three different research instruments. Perceived organizational support scale was developed by the researchers using the existing scales by Eisenberger et. al. and Rhoades et. Al (Eisenberger, Cummings, Armeli & Lynch, 1997; Rhoades, Eisenberger, Armeli, 2001). The scale consists of 14 items, each having 7 options. In order to measure the burnout levels of teachers, Maslach Burnout Inventory for teacher, which had previously been applied and whose validity and reliability study had been done by Celep (2002), was used. Finally, in order to measure the beliefs of self-efficacy among teachers, the self-efficacy scale developed by Friedman and Kaas (2002: cited in Friedman, 2003) was used. The scale measures self-efficacy beliefs in two dimensions: class teaching efficacy and organizational efficacy. The findings of the study indicate that teachers with high perceptions of organizational support also have positive beliefs about their self-efficacy, and that teacher with positive beliefs of self-efficacy experience burnout less than the others. Another finding of the study was that, the relationships between these concepts differed in terms of gender, age groups and school type. Key words: Teacher’s efficacy, Perceived organizational support, Teacher burnout. 940 Teacher’s Perceptions of Organizational Support, Beliefs of Self-Efficacy and Burnout Problem Human relations, which are placed in the centre of educational institutions, have important effect on the quality of education process. In order to have the desirable outcomes from educational institutions, teachers are expected to perform satisfying performance. Work conditions and the quality of self-concept are important determinants of desirable teacher performance. When teachers believe that they are supported by their institution, their self-confidence and beliefs of overcoming difficulties increase. In a lack of support, teachers get emotionally weak and the risk of experiencing burnout increases, which in turn makes performing in desirable way difficult. Self-perception differs according to people’s perceptions of support and affects feelings of burnout. Feeling oneself deficient affects feelings of burnout and this inevitably causes a decrease in the quality of performance and outcomes. In the light of these, the main concepts concerning our research are explained below Self-Efficacy Guskey and Passaro (1994), define teacher efficacy as "teachers' belief or conviction that they can influence how well students learn, even those who may be difficult or unmotivated". Self-efficacy beliefs influence thought patterns and emotions that enable actions in which people expend substantial effort in pursuit of goals, persist in the face of adversity, rebound from temporary setbacks, and exercise some control over events that affect their lives (Bandura, 1993) It is important to note that self-efficacy is a motivational construct based on self-perception of competence rather than actual level of competence. A teacher’s self-perceived level of competence may be either higher or lower than an external assessment of teaching skill (Bandura, 1993). Therefore, it is important to note that self-efficacy can be affected by organizational structure. As Gibson and Dembo (1984: cited in Friedman, 2003) put it, when teachers have a high sense of instruction efficacy, they believe they can teach even the most unmotivated students and they can give extra effort to overcome negative influences. However if teachers have a low sense of instruction efficacy they believe they can’t do much about unsuccessful students and the success of these students is determined by other factors such as the family and the community. Friedman and Kass (2002: cited in Friedman, 2003) developed a conceptual model of teacher self-efficacy (Classroom and School Context) in which teacher’s functioning in the school is discussed under two components. The first component is the classroom, where teacher is concerned about the instruction and the students and the second component is the school, where the teacher is a Cevat Celep, Elif Abat, Filiz Özsoy 941 member of an organization. Friedman (2003) evaluates this model as a reflection of the change in teachers’ roles and a shift from a focus on the classroom to a view of the school as the teachers’ work-domain. Fuller et al. (1982) provided us with a model that related teachers’ self efficacy to the characteristics of a school’s organizational structure, with an effect of the latter on the former. According to Hoy and Woolfolk (1993) this relationship is reciprocal, namely the climate affects the sense of efficacy and efficacy affects perceptions of climate. Friedman (2000) suggests that to enhance the organizational self-efficacy among teachers, school principals should adopt supportive, encouraging and participative managerial styles and good collegial and social support should be encouraged. The leadership style of the principal is also related to teachers’ self-efficacy. In the schools where the principal provided teachers with necessary resources and allowed them flexibility over classroom affairs teachers’ self-efficacy was found higher and principal’s supportive leadership behavior was positively associated with efficacy among teachers (Lee, Dedick & Smith 1991). Therefore it can be said that there is a strong relationship between a supportive environment and teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. Perceived Organizational Support Employees develop global beliefs concerning the extent to which the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being (perceived organizational support [POS] (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986; Shore & Shore, 1995: cited in Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002) Organizational support theory supposes that employees personify the organization, infer the extent to which the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being, and reciprocate such perceived support with increased commitment, loyalty, and performance ( Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). In other words, based on the norm of reciprocity, employees strive to repay the organization for a high level of support by increasing their efforts to help the organization reach its goals (Aselage & Eisenberger, 2003). Perceived organizational support has been found to have lots of organizational outcomes. POS should produce a felt obligation to care about the organization’s welfare and to help the organization reach its objectives. Burnout Maslach and Jackson (1981) define burnout as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion and cynicism that occurs frequently among individuals who do 'people-work' of some kind. They distinguish between three components of burnout; emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and personal accomplishment. 942 Teacher’s Perceptions of Organizational Support, Beliefs of Self-Efficacy and Burnout With burnout, workers experience increased feelings of emotional exhaustion and as a result they feel they are no longer able to give of themselves at a psychological level. Another component of burnout is the development of negative, cynical attitudes and feelings about one’s clients. The last component of burnout is the tendency to evaluate oneself negatively, especially with regard to one’s work with clients (Maslach and Jackson, 1981). While emotional exhaustion is the main element of burnout, depersonalization can be summarized as negative attitudes towards the clients and the reduced sense of personal accomplishment as negative attitudes towards the self. According to Haberman (2005) burnout is a condition in which teachers remain as paid employees but stop functioning as professionals and they remain with no sense of efficacy because they don’t believe they can make a difference in the lives of their students. Burnout stems from the individual’s perception of a significant gap between expectations of professional performance, and reality (Friedman, 2000). When the related literature on self-efficacy beliefs, perceived organizational support and burnout was examined, it was seen that there is an important relationship between these concepts. Some of the related research findings are summarized below. In Grau, Salanova and Peirò’s (2001) study professional self-efficacy was found to be positively correlated with personal accomplishment, and negatively with depersonalization and emotional exhaustion. Lower levels of generalized self-efficacy predicted higher emotional exhaustion and lower levels of professional self-efficacy showed greater cynicism and lower levels of organizational commitment. In Evers’ study (Brouwers and Tomic, 2002) it was found that self-efficacy beliefs were significantly and negatively related to depersonalization and emotional exhaustion levels of burnout and there is a significant and positive relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and personal accomplishment level. Other findings of the study by Friedman (2003) indicate that there is a statistically significant correlation between burnout and self-efficacy in a negative direction (the lower the self-efficacy belief, the higher the burnout). A strong link was also found between self-efficacy beliefs and depersonalization and this relationship was affected by consideration. In the study by Friedman and Farber (1992) it was found that teachers who had less competence in classroom management and discipline also had a higher level of burnout than those who have more confidence in their competence. There are other studies that stated this relationship between perceptions of selfefficacy and burnout. For example Brouwers and Tomic (2000) stated that emotional exhaustion had an effect on perceived self-efficacy and the relationship between depersonalization and perceived self-efficacy is the reverse Cevat Celep, Elif Abat, Filiz Özsoy 943 of the direction of the relationship between emotional exhaustion and perceived self-efficacy. Brouwers and Tomic (2000) comment on effect of self-efficacy on personal accomplishment and state that when teachers have little confidence in their ability to maintain classroom order, they give up easily and they feel themselves ineffective and it is assumed that these feelings of ineffectiveness arises after a decline in perceived self-efficacy. Friedman (2003) also found that perceived sense of self-efficacy was inversely correlated with perceived burnout: the lower the sense of self-efficacy, the higher the perceived burnout. Perceived organizational support is also an important organizational antecedent of burnout. Friedman (2000) states in his study that social support within the organization and organizational support in general can serve as a barrier between stress and burnout. Teachers’ efficacy beliefs about interpersonal relations with their colleagues predicted burnout at an important level. A possible interpretation of this finding can be the importance of the relations aspect of burnout and its important role in affecting burnout. The organization is an important source of support for the workers (Friedman, 2003). When teachers perceive lack of support from their colleagues and principals they tend to have lower self-efficacy beliefs and those beliefs predict their level of burnout (Brouwers, Tomic, 1999). Another important outcome of POS is employees’ efficacy. Perceived organizational support (POS) is also valued as assurance that aid will be available from the organization when it is needed to carry out one’s job effectively and to deal with stressful situations (George, Reed, Ballard, Colin, Fielding, 1993). The Purpose of the Research The purpose of this research is to determine the relationships between teachers’ perceived organizational support, their perceptions of self-efficacy and level of burnout. Method The research is descriptive and its theoretical structure was formed after a review of literature on teachers’ self-efficacy, perceived organizational support and burnout. Population and Sample The population of the study consists of primary school teachers working in Kocaeli and Istanbul. The sample, chosen by random sampling method composed of 510 teachers from twenty one primary schools including three private schools in Kocaeli and Istanbul. The average age of the teachers in the 944 Teacher’s Perceptions of Organizational Support, Beliefs of Self-Efficacy and Burnout sample was above 41. 29,6 % of the teachers had 1-5 years of teaching experience and 233 teachers worked in the same school with the same principal for 1-5 years. The sample consisted of 318 female and 185 male teachers and 7 teachers who failed to disclose their gender. 443 teachers taught in public schools and 67 teachers taught in private schools. 76,9 % of teachers had a bachelor’s degree, 14,3% had a 2 years college degree and 6,1% had a master’s degree. Data Gathering The scales used in our research are as follows: Teacher Efficacy Scale: Teacher Efficacy Scale was developed by Friedman & Kass (2002). Original scale has 30 items and 6 subscales. After the factor analysis, 3 items in the classroom discipline control subscale of the original scale were omitted. The Cronbach’s alpha was .90. The scale consists of 27 items and 5 factors. These factors were named as Teaching efficacy (1,2,3,4,5,8,9), Organizational Inclusion (23,24,25,26,27), Organizational Effect (15,17,18,19,21), Sense of Incapability (6,7,16,20,22) and Caring the Classroom (10,11,12,13,14). These factors explain % 61 of the total variance. Perceived Organizational Support Scale: In order to measure teachers’ perceived organizational support, Perceived Organizational Support Scale developed by Eisenberger, Rhoades et. al (1997) was used. Original scale consists of 14 items. After the factor analysis, these items produced two factors. 12 items were explained under a single factor, whereas the two reverse coded items produced another factor. These factors were named as Positive Organizational Support (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,12,14) and Negative Organizational Support (9,13). The Cronbach’s alpha was .94. Maslach Burnout Inventory for Teachers: In order to measure teachers’ perception of burnout, the burnout scale developed by Maslach (1981) was used. Original scale consists of 22 items and 3 subscales. We didn’t include four of the items since the reliability scale improved when we removed these items. Three items were judged not to measure burnout since items 9, 12 and 16 positively phrased and conceptually appeared to measure not burnout but powerfulness. Also item 21 were removed because similar items appeared in the scale. After the factor analysis, 4 items were omitted and remaining 18 items produced 4 factors. These factors were named as Occupational Insensitivity (3,5,8,10,13,14), Insensitivity to Students (15,18,20,22), Personal Failure (2,4,7) and Exhaustion (1,6,11,17,19). The Cronbach’s alpha was .85. Findings The findings of our study are summarized below under subheadings 945 Cevat Celep, Elif Abat, Filiz Özsoy Personal Variables That Effect Perceived Self-Efficacy, Perceived Organizational Support and Burnout Age: In order to see if teachers’ perceived self-efficacy, perceived organizational support and burnout differ in terms of age groups, ANOVA test was applied (Table 1). The results state that teachers’ perceived organizational support doesn’t differ in terms of age groups, while their burnout and perceived self-efficacy does. There is a statistically meaningful difference in terms of burnout between teachers above 41 and 20-25 (.032) and also 26-30 (.045). Scheffe tables reveal that younger teachers aged between 20-25 and 26-30 experience burnout more than those above 41. Another result was that teachers’ perceived self-efficacy also differs in terms of age groups. According to the results, there is s statistically meaningful difference between teachers aged between 31-35 and 41+ in terms of perceived self-efficacy. When mean differences were compared, it was seen that teachers aged above 41 feel themselves more efficient than those aged between 31-35. As Celep (1998) puts it, in our country candidate teachers have great expectations at the beginning of their teaching career. However in probation period they don’t find satisfactory and realistic training chance. When faced with the real teaching environment and difficulties, novice teachers are expected to experience burnout easily. Moreover, an increase in experience and age affects self-efficacy positively. Table 1: ANOVA Results of Teachers’ Perceived Self-Efficacy, Perceived Organizational Support and Burnout In Terms Of Age Dimension Sum of Squares Between group Perceived SelfWithin Group Efficacy Total 219,583 384 Perceived Organizational Support Burnout Sd Mean Square 8,627 4 2,157 210,956 380 ,555 F p Significant Difference 3,885 ,004 31-35, 41+ Between group 7,596 4 1,899 Within Group 701,123 428 1,638 1,159 ,328 - Total 708,719 432 Between group Within Group 13,296 372,608 4 423 3,324 ,881 3,773 ,005 Total 385,903 427 20-25, 41+ 26-30, 41+ Gender: T-test analysis was carried out in order to find out whether teachers’ perceived self-efficacy, perceived organizational support and burnout differ in 946 Teacher’s Perceptions of Organizational Support, Beliefs of Self-Efficacy and Burnout terms of gender (Table 2). Results give noı difference between male and female teachers in terms of perceived self-efficacy (p>0.05), however, in terms of perceived organizational support and burnout there is a statistically meaningful difference in terms of gender. According to the analysis, male teachers experience burnout more than females (p<0.05). On the other hand, male teachers’ perceived organizational scores are significantly higher than their female counterparts (p<0.05). As a job, teaching is preferred by women more than men. In our culture, women are accustomed to male authority and they tend to internalize the pressure from outside. Therefore, when female teachers have problems with the administration, they are more likely to accept the authority and they see the situation normal. This could be the reason of male teachers’ experiencing burnout more than their female counterparts. Because male teachers don’t tend to give up easily when having a conflict with the administration. Table 2: T-test Results of Teachers’ Perceived Self-Efficacy, Perceived Organizational Support and Burnout in Terms of Gender Dimension Gender N Mean S.S. Sd t p Perceived SelfEfficacy Female 233 5,3240 ,72311 Male 147 5,4432 ,80892 Perceived Organizational Support Female Male 274 154 4,8032 1,34615 426 2,199 ,028 5,0858 1,14106 Burnout Female Male 267 156 3,0605 ,89990 421 2,142 ,033 3,2657 1,03095 378 1,495 ,136 School Type: T-test analysis was carried out in order to find out whether teachers’ perceived self-efficacy, perceived organizational support and burnout differ in terms of school type (Table 3). Results indicate that there is a meaningful difference in terms of burnout between teachers working in state schools and private schools (t= 4,269, p<0.05). When mean differences are compared, teachers in state schools were found to experience burnout more than their cuonterparts in private schools. These two groups of teachers also differ significantly in terms of perceived self-efficacy according to T-test results (t= -4,107, p<0.05). Mean differences state that teachers in private schools have higher perceived self-efficacy than those in state schools. 947 Cevat Celep, Elif Abat, Filiz Özsoy There wasn’t found any significant difference between teachers working in state and private schools in terms of perceived organizational support (t= -1,674, p>0.05). It is known that in state schools there is a highly excessive amount bureaucratic burden on teachers and that parents generally avoid taking responsibility of their children when compared to private school teachers. Our findings could be interpreted taking into account of this excessive bureaucratic burden and an increase in the feelings of burnout. Private schools are highly selective in employing teachers, and there is a tendency to employ experienced and successful ones. This could be reason of private school teachers’ higher perceived self-efficacy. Table 3: T-test Results of Teachers’ Perceived Self-Efficacy, Perceived Organizational Support and Burnout in Terms Of School Type Dimension N Mean S.S. Perceived State Self-Efficacy Private 337 5,3152 ,73872 48 5,7847 ,74744 Perceived Organization al Support State 377 4,8683 1,24366 Private 56 5,1747 1,49290 State 373 3,2060 ,92950 Private 55 2,6313 ,94942 Burnout School Type Sd T p 383 4,107 ,000 431 1,674 ,095 426 4,269 ,000 The Effect of Burnout on Perceived Self-Efficacy In order to find out how effective is teachers’ occupational burnout in predicting teachers’ perceived self-efficacy, a regression analysis was carried out (Table 4). The outcomes of the regression analysis carried out to measure the effects of burnout subscales on teachers’ perceived self-efficacy, it was found that occupational insensitivity and efficacy were negatively correlated (-. 42), the correlation between insensitivity to students and efficacy were .01, personal failure and efficacy were negatively correlated (-.57). This finding support another related research findings in the literature (Brouwers and Tomic, 2000). Finally, exhaustion and efficacy were found to be negatively correlated (-.28). These findings also support previous research findings (Evers, Brouwers and Tomic, 2002: Grau, Salavona and Peirò, 2001). 948 Teacher’s Perceptions of Organizational Support, Beliefs of Self-Efficacy and Burnout Results of the analysis indicate that occupational insensitivity, insensitivity to students and personal failure subscales are meaningful predictors of perceived self-efficacy. The standardized regression coefficient (β) indicates that relative significance rank of the predictive variables on perceived self-efficacy is personal failure, occupational insensitivity and insensitivity to students. Table 4: Multiple Regression Analysis Results Concerning the Prediction of Self-Efficacy According to Teachers’ Occupational Burnout. Independent Variables B Standard Error Constant Occupational Insensitivity 6,074 -,178 ,173 ,032 Insensitivity to Students ,160 Personal Failure -,329 -,031 Exhaustion R = .637 F(4,331) = 56,415 P Zero Order Partial R 35,030 -,303 -5,511 ,000 ,000 -,426 -,290 ,038 ,192 ,000 ,017 ,223 ,033 -,459 -10,035 ,000 -,563 -,483 ,029 -.053 ,283 -,279 -,059 β t 4,160 -1,074 R2 = .405 P =.000 The Effect of Teachers’ Perceptions of Organizational Support and Occupational Burnout on Perceived Self-Efficacy In order to find out how effective are perceived organizational support and occupational burnout in predicting perceived self-efficacy, a regression analysis was carried out (Table 5). The correlation between perceived self-efficacy and perceived organizational support was medium and positive (.54). However, when burnout was controlled this correlation value decreases (.45). There was a medium negative relationship between burnout and perceived self-efficacy (-.49) but the value decreases (-.39) when perceived organizational support was controlled. Perception of burnout together with perceived organizational support have a highly meaningful relationship with perceived self-efficacy (R = 0.635, R2 = 0.403, p<01). These two variables together explain %41 of the total variance of perceived self-efficacy. The relative significance rank of the predictive variables is perceived organizational support (,420) and burnout (-,352). T-test results concerning the meaningfulness of regression coefficients indicate that both variables significantly predict self-efficacy. These findings are consistent with the findings of previous researches (Brouwers & Tomic, 1999; Friedman, 2003; Lee et.al. 1991). As Bandura (1993) puts it, self-efficacy is a perception and doesn’t always necessarily reflect real performance. The perception of self-efficacy can vary 949 Cevat Celep, Elif Abat, Filiz Özsoy according to perceived organizational support and this could play a determinative role on burnout. As the analysis results indicate, when one feels supported, perceived self-efficacy is also high. However, if this person is experiencing burnout, self-efficacy decreases in spite of feelings of support. Table 5: Hierarchical Regression Analysis Concerning the Prediction of Perceived Self-Efficacy Independent Variables B Standard Error β t P 22,857 ,000 Zero Order Partial R Constant 4,976 ,218 - - - Perceived Organizational Support ,254 ,029 ,420 8,757 ,000 ,542 ,454 Perceived Burnout - ,272 ,037 - ,352 -7,351 ,000 -,498 -,393 R = 0.635 R2 = 0.403 F(2,296) = 99.857 P =.000 Discussion Our research results indicate that both burnout and perceived organizational support are significant predictors of perceived self-efficacy. There is a negative relationship between burnout and self-efficacy. Three subscales of burnout, namely occupational insensitivity, insensitivity to students and personal failure were found to be significant predictors of self-efficacy, while exhaustion wasn’t. These findings are consistent with previous research findings (Brouwers and Tomic, 2000; Friedman and Farber, 1992; Friedman, 2003; Grau, Salanova and Peirò, 2001). Another finding of the research was that perceived organizational support and self-efficacy correlated positively and that perceived organizational support was a significant predictive of self-efficacy. However, when burnout was controlled, correlation decreases. This finding supports other research findings (Brouwers & Tomic, 1999; Friedman, 2000; Friedman, 2003; George, Reed, Ballard, Colin, & Fielding, 1993. Finally, reserch resuls revealed that teachers’ perceived self-efficacy differ significantly in terms of age groups. Teachers aged above 41 have higher perceived self-efficacy than those aged between 31-35. Teachers aged above 41 also experience burnout less than their counterparts aged between 20-25 ve 2630. Male teachers were found to experience burnout more than females. Teachers working in private schools have higher perceived self-efficacy than those in state schools and teachers in state schools experience burnout more. One way for education institutions to produce desired outcomes is teachers’ doing their jobs with love and care? Therefore it is very important for teachers to feel themselves happy and satisfied with their job. Research findings also 950 Teacher’s Perceptions of Organizational Support, Beliefs of Self-Efficacy and Burnout indicate that administrative are supposed to behave in a supportive manner in order to increase perceived self-efficacy among teachers. Multiple regression analysis results indicate that personal failure, a subscale of burnout, has an effect on self-efficacy while exhaustion doesn’t. Even if physical conditions in state schools are poor, being physically exhausted doesn’t affect burnout. The main factor affecting perceived self-efficacy is not getting sufficient results in return to their efforts, which are feelings of personal failure. In today’s education system, the teacher is no longer the only determiner of students’ success. There are objective central examinations carried out all over the country and as a result, teachers’self-efficacy beliefs are affected. References Aselage, J., & Eisenberger, R. (2003). Perceived organizational support and psychological contracts: A theoretical integration. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, 491–509. Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28 (2), 117-148. Brouwers, A. & Tomic, W. (1999). Teacher burnout, perceived self-efficacy in classroom management and students disruptive behavior in secondary education. Curriculum and Teaching 14(2), 7–26. Brouwers, A. & Tomic, W. (2000). A longitudinal study of teacher burnout and perceived selfefficacy in classroom management. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(2), 239–253. Brouwers, A. & Tomic, W. (2002). Disruptive Student Behavior, Perceived Self-Efficacy and Teacher Burnout. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association ( 108th , Washington, D.C., August 4-8, 2000). Celep, C. (1998). Aday Öğretmenlerin Öğrenci Kontrol Yönelimi”, Eğitim ve Bilim Dergisi, 106, 12,-22, Ankara. 11. Celep, C. (2002) İlköğretim Ve Ortaöğretimdeki Öğretmenler İle Üniversite Öğretim Elemanlarının Mesleki Tükenmişlikleri XI. Educational Sciences Congress - 23-26th October 2002 Near East University, Nicosia, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D. (1986). Perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 500-507. Cevat Celep, Elif Abat, Filiz Özsoy 951 Eisenberger, R., Fasolo, E M., & Davis-LaMastro, V. (1990). Effects of perceived organizational support on employee diligence, innovation, and commitment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 53, 51-59. Eisenberger, R., Cummings, J., Armeli, S., & Lynch, P. (1997). Perceived organizational support, discretionary treatment, and job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 812–820. Friedman, I.A. & Farber, B.A. (1992). Professional self-concept as a predictor of teacher burnout. Journal of Educational Research, 86(1), 28–35. Friedman, I.A. (2000). Burnout in Teachers: Shattered Dreams of Impeccable Professional Performance. Psychotherapy in Practice. 56, 595-606. Friedman, I.A. & Kass, E. (2002). Teacher self-efficacy: a classroomorganization conceptualization. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 675–686. Friedman, I.A. (2003). Self-efficacy and burnout in teaching: the importance of interpersonal-relatins efficacy. Social Psychology of Education, 6, 191215. Fuller, B. , K. Wood, T. Rapoport, and S. M. Dornbusch. 1982. “ The Organizational Context of Individual Efficacy.’’ Review of Educational Research, 52, 7-30. Gibson, S. & Dembo, M.H. (1984). Teacher efficacy: a construct validation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 569–582. George, J. M., Reed, T. E, Ballard, K. A., Colin, J., & Fielding, J. (1993). Contact with AIDS patients as a source of workrelated distress: Effects of organizational and social support. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 157-171. Grau, R., Salanova, M., & Peirò, J.M. (2001). Moderator effects of self-efficacy on occupational stress. Psychology in Spain, 5(1), 63–74. Guskey, T. R., & Passaro, P. D. (1994). Teacher efficacy: A study of construct dimensions. American Educational Research Journal, 31, 627}643. Haberman, M. (1995). Star teachers of children in poverty. Kappa Delta Pi International Honor Society in Education: West Lafayetter, Indiana, p. 60. Haberman, M. (2005). Teacher Burnout in Black and White. The New Educator. 1, 153-175. 952 Teacher’s Perceptions of Organizational Support, Beliefs of Self-Efficacy and Burnout Hoy, W. K., &Woolfolk, A. E. (1993). Teachers’ sense of efficacy and the organizational health of schools. The Elementary School Journal, 93, 356–372. Lee, V., Dedick, R., & Smith, J. (1991). The effect of the social organization of schools on teachers’ efficacy and satisfaction. Sociology of Education, 64, 190–208. Maslach, C. & Jackson, S. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 2, 1–15. Rhoades, L., Eisenberger, R., & Armeli, S. (2001). Affective commitment to the organization: The contribution of perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 825–836. Rhoades, L., & Eisenberger, R. (2002). Perceived organizational support: A review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 698–714. Shore, L. M., & Shore, T. H. (1995). Perceived organizational support and organizational justice. In R. Cropanzano & K. M. Kacmar (Eds.), Organizational politics, justice, and support: Managing social climate at work (pp. 149-164). Westport, C1~. Quorum Press. Teachers’ Notions about the Their’ Occupational Improvement Ahmet Kurnaz, Konya Science and Art Center – Turkey Ali Murat Sünbül, Selçuk University – Turkey Abstract Teachers’ notions about the occupational improvement are carried out in this report. This research has been conducted with qualitative approach. The data which have been compiled by means of corresponding methods have been evaluated by doing internal analyze. The data have been collected at the end of the interviews on 38 teachers who work at the government’s primary school and teach various lessons. The issue about necessities for the occupational improvement of the teachers, the researches which can be used by them, the impacts of the formal training activities, the role of the central or individual embarks the area of the school, where the teachers work and contributions of their officemates have been studied. Key words: Teachers’ Occupational Improvement Introduction New technological development and rapid changes cause radical changes in the structure and function of the society and everything becomes related with learning and education. In one hand, there is a trend for a society where everybody has chance and opportunities to learn on any topic he desires and the learning strikes its roors to deep. On the other hand, the individuals at every level and age are expected to contribute to economy. The profile of human power has been changed. “The learning society”, “cognitive (information) society” which has become society utopics of the 21’st century requires “literate of information” individuals who have won the qualification of “lifelong learners”. It is clear that the notion of lifelong learning cannot be performed via the current executive system and via limited information, skills, attitudes, 954 Teachers’ Notions about the Their’ Occupational Improvement behaviours and values only obtained from the schools. At the present day which information accumulation increased and the production, distribution and sharing of the information changed radically, individuals can accommodate with changes and developments that occur in cultural, sociological and financial structure of the society related to the developments in the information and rechnology and own lifelong learning opportunities and chances. In order to spread lifelong learning pattern in our education system and society and provide its maintenance, the element of teacher should be considered. Since the teacher has assumed one of the key roles in training individuals that have learned to learn, the foundation of lifelong learning is laid through a well educated teacher. Generally, the teachers are thought to provide learning instinct to the students. If the teacher believes in the necessity of lifelong learning and develop himself, he can form this habit in his students. There is no time and space for learning. It is important to learn and use the information. The teacher of the future should set an example as a person who sees every opportunity as a learning source and continuously renews and tests himself. The teacher should be a person of profession that has a wide accumulation of information on vocational knowledge, knowledge of methodology, vocational information for teaching and general culture and should develop an understanding about when and how to use this information accumulation in the learning and teaching occasions. It should be considered that the success of the teachers in their jobs is possible only when they follow the renovations on education and teaching field and the developments in education technology and learn new methods to solve the educational problems they face at school. In a sense, such activities that aim to renew and develop contribute the teacher more dynamic and more selfconfidently (Karagözoğlu, 1997:30). The first step to increase the performances of the workers and provide productivity is to state their demands and needs clearly and determine their expectations. Thus, personal aims and targets will be able to determined and understood and they will be executed and performed after proportioning to the targets of the organization (Argon, 2004:32). In our world, teacher training is accepted as one of the most important investments. For this purpose, various placement activities are planned and applied with numerous styles, models, systems and policies in numerous institutes (Karagözoğlu, 1996). The aim of all these activities is to provide teachers develop in their profession and increase the education quality. The continuous education process which the education workers are always in has more importance than the other professions. In the presence of knowledge and technology that increase rapidly especially necessitates the teachers to develop themselves (Başaran, 1994: 138). Ahmet Kurnaz, Ali Murat Sünbül 955 Besides seminar activities at the beginning and end of the education period as in-service trainings; various courses, seminars and meetings are organized to improve the teachers in their fields. The school managers follow the lectures of the teachers and try to contribute their vocational development. Moreover, primary school inspectors visit primary schools especially in primary schools and try to contribute to their improvement. While executing all these activities, the opinions of the teachers that are in the center of the topic related to their own vocational development have great importance. The Aim of the Study The aim of this study is to determine the opinions of the teachers related to the topic in order to make the vocational development of the teachers more effective. On this head, determination of the teachers’ opinions will serve to reach the targets of providing their vocational developments. With this purpose, the opinions of the teachers related to their vocational development were aimed to determine. Following opinions of the teachers related to their vocational development were aimed to determine with the study; 1. The necessity of teachers’ vocational development, 2. The sources that the teacher can use in their vocational development, 3. The effect of the teachers’ financial status in their vocational development, 4. The effect of in-service trainings in the vocational developments of the teachers, 5. The effect of carier level applications in the vocational developments of the teachers, 6. The role of the their personal efforts or central applications (Ministry/Provincal Office of Public Education) in the vocational developments of the teachers, 7. The contribution of their colleagues in the vocational developments of the teachers, 8. The effects of the settlement area where the school they work is located in the vocational developments of the teachers, 9. The effects of the changes in the education programs in the vocational developments of the teachers, 10. The effects of the management understanding and styles of school managers in the vocational developments of the teachers, 11. The contribution of the visits of school managers in class during the lesson and their evaluations in the vocational developments of the teachers, 956 Teachers’ Notions about the Their’ Occupational Improvement 12. The contribution of inspectors’ visit during the lesson and guiding activities in the vocational developments of the teachers. Method The study was executed thorough semi-constructed interview method which is one of the qualitative methods. In the study, face-to-face interview were performed with 38 primary school teachers and data was collected through taking notes during the interviews. Participants The participants are 63 teachers who work in 14 different primary schools in the city center of Konya, in the center of Çumra district and towns and villages. The information related to the teachers was given in Table -1. Table 1: The Information Related to the Participants The Settlement Area Where the School Which He Work is Located Field Sex Class Branch Province District Town Village Teacher Techer Center Center 16 12 Male 13 15 8 6 6 8 13 7 8 Total 29 27 14 15 13 14 28 17 11 56 9 7 56 6 0 – 10 10 – 20 Over 20 yrs. yrs. yrs. Female General Total 6 Service Period 15 10 3 56 The Collection of Data A semi-constructed interview form prepared by the researcher was used in the study. The elements that arise during the interviews were also added to the process of data collecting. In the analyzation of the data the approaches of reducting qualitative data into percentages and calculating word frequency from the qualitative research method. In this approach, the participation of the individuals who join the study to the themes and categories determined in the research data (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2005). The participation levels of the participants to themes analyzed in the study were expressed in percentiles. Findings and Comment Following findings were obtained from the data of the study; 1. Related to the necessity of the vocational development for the teachers, all of the participants determined that developing themselves was an Ahmet Kurnaz, Ali Murat Sünbül 957 essentiality and vocational developments of the teachers were more important than other profession groups. Technological developments, thee changes in the student profile, and national and international changes loomed large as the reasons that necessitate the vocational development. 2. Related to the sources that the teachers can develop themselves, they determine that there are numerous and enough sources. a. 48 participants (85,71%) determine the internet as the most important source. 18 of that 48 participants (38%) determine that the internet especially leads the teacher to expect everything to be handed in a silver plate and indolence, thus it deprts the teachers from productivity. b. In the expressions of the participants, the internet was referred 48 times, vocational books were referred 26 times, journals 15 times and the articles were referred 14 times. The number of the teachers who give chapter and verse of in-service training activities in teacher development is 16. c. 24 of the participants (42,85%) have determined that vocational development can be provided through postgraduate education. 3. Related to the effects of their financial status in vocational development of the teachers; d. 73,21% of the participants (41) determined that their current financial status wasn’t an obstacle for their vocational developments while 13 of them (23,21%) determined that financial status of the teachers had prevented their vocational development. e. 37 of the participants (66,07%) determined they didn’t spend money from their salaries on any of the sources, 13 of them (23,21%) had separated 5-10 YTLs and 6 of them (10,71) separated 10-15 YTLs. 4. Related to the place of in-service training in the developments of the teachers; f. 73,21% of the participants (41) determined that the activities would be useful if they are given by experts with correct techniques. g. 60,71% of the participants (34) determined that timing and the place where the activity would take place was important and expressed that the activities right after the lessons were useless. Besides, they determined that the activities should take place close to the places the teachers work. h. 75% of the participants (42) determined that every teacher should participate to in-service training at least twice a year. i. 16,07% of the participants (9) determined that in-service training activities were boring and unproductive. 958 Teachers’ Notions about the Their’ Occupational Improvement 5. Related to the contribution of carrier level applications in the vocational developments of the teacher; j. 60,71% of the participants (34) determined that this application contributed their vocational development. Among these teachers, 27 of them (79%) determined that the criteria in the carrier level applications should be reorganized. k. 35,71 of the participants (20) determined that the application didn’t contribute to the vocational development of the teachers. 6. Related to the role of their personal efforts or central applications (Ministry/Provincal Public Education) in the vocational developments of the teachers; l. 69,14% of the participants (39) determined personal intention, curiousity and efforts were important. m. 23,21% of the participants (13) determined that personal efforts and central directions completed each other. 7. Related to the contribution of their colleagues in the vocational development of the teachers; n. 57,14% of the participants (32 people) determined that the teachers leaned many things from each other in the working environment and contributed to each other. In order to provide this contribution, there should be interaction among the teachers. o. The percentage of the techers who determine that teachers didn’t contribute to each other and they talked about the things except professional matters is 34,14%. 8. Related to the the effects of the settlement area where the teachers work in their vocational development; p. 62,5% of the participants (35 people) determined that the schools which are in big cities had positive effects in their vocational development. The parents with higher socio-cultural levels, the interest of students to the education and their information level, varieties of opportunities there were determined as the advantages of big cities. q. 32,14% of the participants (18 people) determined that working in big cities wasn’t a mandatory in their vocational development since communication and transport was accessible everywhere and people could develop themselves through their own personal efforts. 9. Related to the effect of the changes in educational programs in their vocational development; r. 67,85% of the participants determined that the changes in the educational programs contributed to the vocational development of teachers positively. The participants determine that the teachers Ahmet Kurnaz, Ali Murat Sünbül 959 applied to sources and they researched in order to understand and execute the performed changes. s. 23,21% of the participants determined that the changes in the educational programs didn’t contribute to the vocational development of teachers at all. 10. Related to the effects of the management understanding and attitudes of school managers in the vocational development of the teachers; t. 85,71% of the participants determined that the school managers affected their vocational development too much, negatively or positively. The participants determined that the couragement of the school managers for vocational development and the manager’s open characteristics for innovations affected their development positively and the unripe managers for developments who are over-authoritarian affected them negatively. u. 14,28% of the participants determined that the attitudes of the school managers weren’t effective and their vocational development was related to themselves. 11. Related to the contribution of the visits of school managers in the class during the lesson on the vocational development of teachers; v. 62,5% of the participants had positive effects when they were helpful and brought suggestions related to in-class activities. w. 35,71% of the participants determined that the visits of the manager in the class during the lesson had no effect on their vocational development at all. 12. Related to the effects of the visits of inspectors during the lesson and their guiding activities on the vocational development of the teachers; x. 32,14% of the participants determined there was no effect at all, y. 32,14% of the participants determined that a contribution was provided on the vocational development of teachers when the inspectors showed helpful attitudes, z. 23,21% of the participants determined there were negative effects, aa. 12,5% of the participants determined that there were positive effects. Conclusion and Suggestions Here is the conclusion obtained from the findings of the study; The teachers think their vocational development as a necessity. In order to conclude this idea positively, the teachers should be given opportunities that support their vocational development. 1. The teachers see the internet as the most important source for their vocational development. From this aspect, free internet access provided by Ministry of Educatio should continue. However, the internet 960 Teachers’ Notions about the Their’ Occupational Improvement 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. environments should be formed to provide distant education and directly contribute to their vocational development. Besides, the teachers should be helped in making the documents they recive on the internet in convenient for school conditions during the preparation of lesson activities. The written sources that are effective on the vocational development of the teachers are vocational books, journals and articles. In-service training activities and postgraduate education are other important sources. While the teachers don’t accept their financial status an obstacle for their vocational development, they don’t spare a share from their budgets for their vocational development. Teachers should be encouraged to spare a share for their vocational developments. For this purpose, teachers should be given cheques for books and they should be able to buy books and magazines etc. with these cheques. In-service training activities have positive effects on the vocational development of the teachers. To this end, every teacher should join inservice training activities the least once a year, the activities should be executed through expert people with correct techniques as a sandwich course, the activities should be carried out in close distances where the teacher live, shouldn’t be done right after the lesson, the factors that make the activities nonefficient should be eliminated. The carier level applications are positively effective in the vocational development of the teachers. The evaluation criteria in this application should be re-organized. Of course, personal efforts of the teachers are more important in thir vocational development. However, personal attempts should be supported through central applications. For this purpose, the teachers should be motivated related to their vocational development, and should be directed through central applications. Their colleagues highly contribute the vocational development of the teachers. To this end, the teachers should be in communication and interaction. Long recesses, organization of vocational chattings, interactions among the participants in in-service trainings should be provided. The big size of the settlement area where the school the teacher work is located affects the vocational development of the teachers positively. However, working in a small scaled settlement area isn’t an obstacle for vocational development. The changes in the education programs have provided positive effects on the vocational development of the teacher through directing them to research and accommodate to the innovations. The education Ahmet Kurnaz, Ali Murat Sünbül 961 environments where the teachers can understand the changes in the educational programs should be constituted. 9. The management understanding and styles of the school managers are rather effective on the vocational development of the teachers positively or negatively. If the school manager courages the teachers related to the vocational developments and show open characteristics to the innovations effect their development positively. The managers who are closed to innovations and changes and over-authoritarian affect their development negatively. The school managers should be trained on team work, leraning organization, the leaderships of communication and teaching. 10. The visits of school managers at the class during the lesson and his evaluations provide their vocational developments if they are helpful and they bring suggestions for in-class activities. The school managers should know the teaching techniques very well, his in-class evaluations should contribute to the correct application of teaching methods. 11. The visits of inspectors at the class during the lesson and guiding activities contribute provided they show a helpful attitude. Traditional inspection applications affect the vocational development of the teachers negatively. Discussion The basic topic appear in this study overlaps the role and functions of the school leadership that was mentioned in the TALIS OECD International Research for Teaching and Learning, evaluation and support of the activities of the teachers, learning and teaching approaches in class and education programs (www.oecd.org/edu/talıs). In the study, we had concluded that in-service training activities contributed in vocational development of the teachers. A study performed by Gültekin ve Çubukcu (2007) provided the same result. Through the study, we had a conclusion that their colleagues, carier levels applications, their financial status, their personal efforts and the changes in the education programs were effective in the vocational development of the teachers. The obtained results show parallelism with the study carried by OECD-Innovations in the Education and Research Center (CERI), which Fer (2000) declared. In the research, we had concluded that the school managers were one of the most important factors in the vocational developments of the teachers. Besides, it was determined that they contributed to the vocational development of the teachers if they were helpful and open to the innovations. The study that was 962 Teachers’ Notions about the Their’ Occupational Improvement performed by İnceler (2005) showed that the school managers should do following things to contribute to the vocational development of the teachers; • The primary school managers should overrate the role of educational leadership and fulfill the attitudes of every dimension in top levels • Educational leadership attitudes that are the most convenient to the school environment should be regarded as the qualifications of a manager and they should show attitudes of teaching rather than management duties, • It was concluded that the administrators should stop being passive leaders related to the vocational developments of the teachers and they should be active participants and executives. References Akyüz, Yahya (1994) Türk Eğitim Tarihi (Başlangıçtan 1993’e), Kültür Koleji Yay., İstanbul Bağcı, N. ve S. Şimşek (2000). Millî Eğitim Personeline Yönelik Hizmet İçi Eğitim Faaliyetlerine Genel Bir Bakış. Milli Eğitim Dergisi s.146. M.E.B Yayınları Binbaşıoğlu, Cavit (1990) “Köy Enstitülerinde Öğretim Programları”, ÖğretmenDünyası, Nisan 1990, Sayı 124 Duman, A. (2000). Yetişkinler Eğitimi. Ankara: Ütopya Yayınevi Eşme, İ (2001) Yüksek Öğretmen Okulları, Bilgi Başarı Yayınevi, 2001 Fer, S., "OECD Eğitim Göstergelerinin Gelecekteki Türkiye Eğitim Politikalarına Yansımaları", Eğitim Yönetimi Dergisi, 6 ( 21), 97-109 (2000). Gültekin, M. , Çubukçu, Z., (2007) İlköğretim Öğretmenlerinin Hizmetiçi Eğitime İlişkin Görüşleri, Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Sayı – 19, 2008. Güney, A. (2003) “” Eğitim Araştırmaları Kış 2003, İnceler, S. (2005) İlköğretim Okulu Yöneticilerinin Öğretmenlerin Mesleki Gelişimlerine Yönelik Öğretimsel Liderlik Davranışları, (Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi) Kanlı, U. ve R. Yağbasan (2002). 2000 Yılında Ankara’da Fizik Öğretmenleri İçin Düzenlenen Hizmet İçi Eğitim Yaz Kursunun Etkinliği. Milli Eğitim Dergisi s.153-154. Ankara:M.E.B Yayınları. MEB (2004). 2004 Hizmet içi Faaliyet Planı Ahmet Kurnaz, Ali Murat Sünbül 963 Saban A. (2000). Hizmet İçi Eğitimde Yeni Yaklaşımlar. Milli Eğitim Dergisi. s.145 Ankara:M.E.B Yayınları Ünal, S. (2001). Öğretmenlerin Hizmet İçi Eğitim Etkinliklerinin Verimliliği. Çağdaş Eğitim Dergisi. s.277. Ankara: Tekışık Yayıncılık Yıldırım, A., Şimşek, H., (2005). Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri, Seçkin Yayınevi, Ankara, 2005. Yalın, H. İ. (2001) Hizmet İçi Eğitim Programlarının Değerlendirilmesi Milli Eğitim Dergisi. s.150. Ankara: MEB. Yayınları. Yalın, H. İ.; S. Özdemir ve L. Hedges (1996). Hizmet İçi Eğitim Program Geliştirme El Kitabı. Ankara: MEB Basımevi. www.oecd.org/edu/talıs (3. Talıs tanıtım kitapçığı) 25/07/2008 tarihinde www.oecd.org/edu/talıs internet adresinden alınmıştır. Yüksek Öğretim Kurulu (YÖK) Başkanlığı (1998) “Cumhuriyet Döneminde Öğretmen Yetiştirmenin Tarihi Gelişimi”. Eğitim Fakülteleri Öğretmen Yetiştirme Programlarının Yeniden Düzenlenmesi İle İlgili Rapor, Öğrenci Seçme ve Yerleştirme Merkezi, Ankara, 1998 Teachers’ Views about In-Service Training Programs Related To the New Primary School Mathematics Curriculum: The Case of Trabzon Osman Birgin, Tayfun Tutak, Hakan Çatlıoğlu, Karadeniz Technical University - Turkey Abstract The aim of this study is to determine the primary school teachers’ views about in-service training (INSET) programs related to the new primary school mathematics curriculum. The questionnaire consisting of open-ended and closed type questions developed by researches and it was administered to 50 primary school teachers in Trabzon. Data were analyzed using descriptive analysis technique. The results of this study show that most of the teachers think INSET programs about the new mathematics curriculum were insufficient in terms of their duration, organizations, sample activities, and were not gain experiences about new teaching methods and alternative assessment techniques to teachers. In accordance with the results this study provides suggestions for further INSET programs to be more efficient. Key words: Mathematics curriculum, In-Service training, primary school teachers Introduction The changes in economic, industrial and cultural patterns called for a fundamental change in Turkish education system. The tremendous increase in knowledge demanded an analysis and a synthesis. Also, the fact that the results of national-based exams such as OKS, OSS which give a lots of clues about the Turkish education system and the findings of studies with international scales such as PIRLS, PISA, TIMSS assert that the success of students is rather low compared to the other countries make urgent reforms necessary for the Turkish education system. In this context, the primary school curricula which are developed at national level by The Supreme Council of National Education to 966 Teachers’ Views about In-Service Training Programs Related To the New Primary School make necessary changes and continuously develop the curriculum put into practice over Turkey after choosing 9 sample cities to put this program into effect and try on in teaching term of 2004-2005 (MEB, 2005). One of the new curricula which have been developed for primary schools is mathematics curriculum. It is seen that traditional approach such as behavioral teaching is replaced with modern education approaches like constructivist approach in that new primary school mathematics curriculum. The curriculum recommends computer aided instruction. Besides, it is adopted that each student can learn better by using different intelligence type and different learning style in the new mathematics curriculum (Baki, 2008). It gives to teacher new the role such as the designer, guide, and facilitator instead of just the duty of teaching. The main role of teacher is to prepare the learning environment and to guide the students about the activities. In addition to the role of guidance, the teacher is also the person who provides the cooperation, health and safety, and the one who takes into consider the individual differences (ERG, 2005). The new mathematics curriculum is very different from the traditional teaching and assessment approaches which are well-known by the primary school teachers in Turkey. Therefore, the attitudes and perceptions of primary school teachers towards constructivism, which is required by the new curriculum, play a determinant role in the success of constructivist approaches (Yapı & Leblebiciler, 2007). Thus, the teachers have crucial roles in the process of realization of primary school mathematics curriculum successfully and efficiently. From this point of view, it is important that in-service training (INSET) programs for teachers should be organized and executed so that they can adopt the conditions exposed by the curriculum. It also contributes to teachers’ professional development (Özer, 2006). In this context, the Ministry of National Education organized the INSET programs for local primary school teachers and administers about the new curriculum in cities. It is a fact that the success of the new curriculum mostly depends on the quality and fruitfulness of the INSET programs. For this reason, it is of great importance to learn the primary school teachers’ views concerning the INSET programs about the new curriculum and to determine the problems they faced. The purpose of this research is to determine the primary school teachers’ views about in-service training programs related to the new primary school mathematics curriculum. Methods A survey method was used in this study. The sample of this study is consists of 50 primary school teachers, 24 of whom are the teacher of 4th grade and 26 of whom are the teacher of 5th grade in Trabzon. Primary school teachers are chosen from 17 different primary schools; 5 of which is from the city center, 4 Osman Birgin, Tayfun Tutak, Hakan Çatlıoğlu 967 of which is from country centers, 4 of which is from small towns, and 4 of which is from villages. Instrument Used In this study, quantitative and qualitative data were collected though a questionnaire about INSET program developed by researches. The questionnaire is composed of open and close-ended questions. The opinions of 2 experts and 3 teachers are asked for face and content validity of the questionnaire. Data Collection and Data Analysis The questionnaire is given to 54 primary school teachers who teach 4th grade and 5th grade students in different places of Trabzon. Four participant’s data are omitted from the analysis because they included deficient information. Data were analyzed using descriptive analyze techniques. This analyze techniques enable us to organize the data according to the points asserted by the question of research and to present them considering the questions and dimensions used in the questionnaire (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2003). Findings 1. How did you hear about the INSET programs? 64% of the participants learn about it through official paper; 70% of them heard of it through the managers’ announcement; 36% with the help of internet and 24% of them learn it from their colleagues. 2. What are your general views about the INSET programs? 32% of the participants generally find the INSET program “pretty beneficial”; 46% of them find it “partly beneficial” and 22% of them find it “not beneficial”. 3. Have you taken part in the INSET programs? If you haven’t, what is the reason? 10% of the participant states that they didn’t participate in INSET program and 90% of them tell that they join that INSET program. 5 of the participant express that they couldn’t attend because of the reasons such as illness and assignments. 968 Teachers’ Views about In-Service Training Programs Related To the New Primary School 4. Who are the responsible instructors of the INSET programs organized for the new mathematics curriculum? How long was it? Table 1: The responsible instructors and the attendance of primary school teachers The instructors of INSET program Duration f % Expert educators 1 day 4 8.0 Primary school inspectors 1 day 41 82.0 2-4 hours 8 16.0 Formatters in schools In general, the participants state that they attend one week INSET program organized for the new primary schools curriculum and one day of it is assigned for the introduction of the mathematics curriculum. As it is seen from Table 2, 82% of the participants joined the INSET program conducted by primary school inspectors; 16% of them took part in the INSET program executed by the formatters of the school and 8% of them attended in INSET program given by expert educators. 5. Do you think that the INSET program help you gain enough knowledge and experience about the new mathematics curriculum? 20% of the participants say that the INSET program help them gain knowledge and skills; 36% of them thinks that they partly gain these and 44% of them express that they find the INSET program inadequate. 6. What are the contributions of the INSET program for you? Table 2: The Contributions of INSET program Knowing about the features of the new mathematics curriculum Knowing about alternative assessment methods f % 32 17 64.0 34.0 Showing sample classroom practices 15 30.0 Developing yourself 11 22.0 Being aware of deficient sides of professional knowledge 6 12.0 Sharing ideas with each other 5 10.0 Decreasing anxiety 2 4.0 As it is clear from the Table 2, 64% of the participants think INSET program contribute to them in knowing about the features of the new mathematics curriculum; 34% feel that they contribute in knowing about alternative assessment methods; 30% of them see them useful in that being showed samples 969 Osman Birgin, Tayfun Tutak, Hakan Çatlıoğlu of classroom practices; 22% of them feel that they contribute to them in developing themselves and 12% of them think they are beneficial in making them aware of the deficient sides of their professional knowledge. 7. What are the deficient sides of the INSET program? Table 3: Deficient sides of the INSET program f % Being short-timed INSET program 40 80.0 Its not making gain enough knowledge and skills 34 68.0 Not being presented sample activities 29 58.0 Not being introduced enough information by inspectors Presentations’ being boring 28 25 56.0 50.0 Not being given resource materials related with INSET program 24 48.0 The lack of physical conditions 24 48.0 Too much theoretical knowledge in relation to practice 22 44.0 Not being organized well 15 30.0 Being crowded 13 26.0 Not having an opportunity for discussing the knowledge 11 22.0 Not being able to find solution for the problems concerning practice 6 12.0 Not being able to meet the expectations 5 10.0 The lack of practical solutions 4 8.0 As it is seen from the Table 3, 80% of the participants think that the duration of INSET program is very short; 68% of them think that it doesn’t make you gain enough knowledge and skills; 58% of them express that there is not enough sample activities presented; 56% of them feel that the people who are responsible for the trainings do not introduce enough information; 50% of them find the presentations boring; 48 % of them complain about the lack of resource materials and the lack of physical conditions; 44% tell that there is too much theoretical knowledge in relation to practice. Some (30%) of the participants thinks that INSET program is not organized well (30%); some complain about the crowdedness (26%); some express that there is not an opportunity to discuss the knowledge (22%) and some state that it doesn’t provide solutions for the problems (12%) concerning practice. 8. Could you make use of the learned things during INSET program in your classroom practice? Why? 30% of the participants state that they could make use of what they learned for the trainings in their classroom practice; 40% of them express they partly implement what they learned and 24% of them claim that they could not make 970 Teachers’ Views about In-Service Training Programs Related To the New Primary School use of what they learned. The ones claiming they cannot make use of present some reasons such as the lack of materials, crowdedness of the classrooms, the lack of physical conditions, overweight of lessons and the lack of time. 9. If you were asked about whether you want to join INSET programs, what would you do? 44% of the participants tell that they would attend if there were any INSET program; 24% of them state that they would attend according to the content; 16% of them express that they would come according to the instructor of the training and 36% of them state that they wouldn’t attend in the trainings. The ones who choose not to attend show the ineffectiveness of the INSET program as a reason. 10. On what subjects do you want to be instructed in the INSET programs? Table 4: The topics primary school teachers need to in the INSET program f % Project Portfolio 32 28 64.0 56.0 Teaching methods and techniques 26 52.0 Preparing student centered material and activity 24 48.0 Rubric 22 44.0 Performance work 18 36.0 Self and peer assessment 12 24.0 The other alternative assessment methods 15 30.0 Question writing techniques 10 20.0 Reliability and validity 8 16.0 As it is clear from the Table 4, 64% of the participants need in service training about project; 56% of them need it about portfolio; 52% need to have information about the teaching methods and techniques; 48% of them need to be instructed about preparing student centered material and activity; 44% need to know about rubric; 36% of the participants need in-service training about self and peer assessment and 30% need to be enlightened about the other alternative assessment methods. 11. How and from whom do you want to take the INSET program? 70% of the participants think that in-service training should be given by university teaching staff; 60% of them want it be given by expert people in their areas; 36% of them choose experts in Ministry of Education and 30% of the Osman Birgin, Tayfun Tutak, Hakan Çatlıoğlu 971 participants think it should be given by primary school inspectors. Some of the participants have some suggestions for the in-service training to be more effective such as conducting INSET program longer and comprehensively, its being conducted by experts in their fields, its including practice and small group work, its being organized in that the participants could share their ideas, the presentation of the pilot applications, giving detailed examples about alternative assessment methods. Conclusion and Recommendations The findings of this research shows that INSET program enables primary school teachers to know the changes the new mathematics curriculum brought with itself, however they also show that INSET program was very short and superficial. Moreover, the findings make it clear that the people who are responsible for INSET program were inadequate in introducing and reflecting the philosophy of the primary school curriculum and inadequate in presenting student centered sample activities. It came out that theoretical knowledge was dominant in relation to practice in INSET program, resources related with new curriculum were not handed to the teachers beforehand and it became apparent that sample alternative assessment techniques were not presented. Parallel findings of some researches conducted (Özen, 2006; Özdaş et al., 2005; Gözütok et al., 2005) shows that inservice trainings designed for primary school curriculum is inadequate in enlightening the teacher and in making them gain experience. Moreover, Özer (2001) found that only a small percentage of teachers (%31.3) attended inservice training programs willingly (cited in Özer, 2004). It became apparent that the teachers need in-service trainings especially about preparing student centered activities, teaching methods, and alternative assessment techniques such as project, portfolio, rubric, self-assessment, and performance work. This result overlaps with the results of various researches (Güven & Eskitürk, 2007; Yapıcı & Leblebiciler 2007; ERG, 2006; Özdaş et al., 2005) in that the teachers need in-service trainings about alternative assessment methods. The following suggestions are made according to this research results and the literature: • In planning INSET programs, the needs and interests of the participants such as modern teaching methods and alternative assessment techniques should be considered. Also, admission to the program should be encouraged and based on applications sent by those interested. • INSET program should be alive not bored and continued with one-day workshops regularly during the academic year and supported with summer workshops. 972 Teachers’ Views about In-Service Training Programs Related To the New Primary School • INSET program should be executed in small group works and in an environment where it is possible to share information. • INSET program should be based on practice more and find solutions for problems of teachers that may face. • The spirit and detail of the curriculum prescribed should be given by expert and experienced instructors. Cooperation with scientists in the field of education should be resorted. Not only do scientists verify the accuracy of content or act as a consultant, but also they serve as inservice instructor • INSET program should be predicated on the existence or production of materials such as textbooks, models, films and software. References Baki, A. (2008). Kuramdan Uygulamaya Matematik Eğitimi. Ankara: Harf Eğitim Yay. Eğitimde Reform Girişimi [ERG] (2005). Yeni Öğretim Programlarını İnceleme ve Değerlendirme Raporu. İstanbul: Sabancı Üniversitesi, 30 Mayıs 2005, http://www.erg.sabanciuniv.edu.tr Gözütok, F.D., Akgün, Ö.E., & Karacaoğlu, C. (2005). İlköğretim Programlarının Öğretmen Yeterlikleri Açısından Değerlendirilmesi. Yeni İlköğretim Programlarını Değerlendirme Sempozyumu Bildiri Kitabı (17-40), Erciyes Üniversitesi, Ankara: Sim Matbaası. Güven, B., & Eskitürk, M. (2007). Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Ölçme ve Değerlendirmede Kullandıkları Yöntem ve Teknikler. XVI.Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi Bildiri Kitabı, Cilt 3, 504-509. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı [MEB] (2004). İlköğretim Okulu Matematik Dersi (15.sınıflar) Öğretim Programı. Ankara: MEB Basım evi. Özdaş, A., Tanışlı, D., Köse, N., & Kılıç, Ç. (2005). Yeni İlköğretim Matematik Dersi (1.-5.Sınıflar) Öğretim Programının Öğretmen Görüşlerine Dayalı Olarak Değerlendirilmesi.Yeni İlköğretim Programlarını Değerlendirme Sempozyumu Bildiri Kitabı (239-255), Erciyes Üniversitesi, Ankara: Sim Matbaası. Özen, R. (2006). İlköğretim Okulu Öğretmenlerinin Hizmet içi Eğitim Programlarının Etkileri Üzerine Düşünceleri (Düzce İli Örneği). Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 6(2), 141-160. Osman Birgin, Tayfun Tutak, Hakan Çatlıoğlu 973 Özer, B. (2004). In-service Training of Teachers in Turkey at the Beginning of the 2000s. Journal of In-service Education, 30(1), 89-100. Yapıcı, M., & Leblebiciler, NH. (2007). Öğretmenlerin Yeni İlköğretim Programına İlişkin Görüşleri. İlköğretim Online Dergisi, 6(3), 480-490. Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2003). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri (3.Baskı). Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık. The Efficacy Perception on Teachers’ Practicing Teaching Strategies Working in Primary Education Schools Güngör Keskinkılıç, Derya Çınar, Selcuk University – Turkey Abstract The aim of this research is to determine efficacy perception of teachers’ practicing teaching strategies different branches working in primary education schools. This research is related to efficacy on the practice of teaching strategies of teachers will support the other research. Perceived self efficacy is defined as people's beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that. Self-efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave” (Bandura, 1997). Data is collected by conversation technic that is one of the qualitative methods in this research. Research has been implemented on pimary education schools in Konya. This qualitative study is based on the open ended standardized questions about the efficacy on the use of teaching strategies that are asked to different teachers in the spring semester of the 2007/2008. Results of this study can indicate teacher’s problems and difficulties on the use of strategy in lessons and their strategy selection in generally. Key words: Teaching strategies, self efficacy, teacher education Introduction Teachers working for the primary schools should have not only the knowledge about their field but also should have sufficient teaching skills and perception of self efficacy. Effective using of strategies in the lesson is important for the teachers to guide the students to the lesson and to make an efficient learning. Teaching is commonly assumed to involve substantial technical uncertainty. As a result, effective teaching requires not only knowledge and skills, but also self efficacy: a judgement of one’s capability to effect a desired level of performance (Roudenbush, and others. 1990). 976 The Efficacy Perception on Teachers’ Practicing Teaching Strategies Perceived self-efficacy is defined as people's beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives. Self-efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave. Such beliefs produce these diverse effects through four major processes. They include cognitive, motivational, affective and selection processes. A strong sense of efficacy enhances human accomplishment and personal well-being in many ways. People with high assurance in their capabilities approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered rather than as threats to be avoided. Such an efficacious outlook fosters intrinsic interest and deep engrossment in activities. They set themselves challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them. They heighten and sustain their efforts in the face of failure. They quickly recover their sense of efficacy after failures or setbacks. They attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge and skills which are acquirable. They approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise control over them. Such an efficacious outlook produces personal accomplishments, reduces stress and lowers vulnerability to depression. (Bandura, 1994). People who doubt their capabilities shy away from difficult tasks which they view as personal threats. They have low aspirations and weak commitment to the goals they choose to pursue. When faced with difficult tasks, they dwell on their personal deficiencies, on the obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of adverse outcomes rather than concentrate on how to perform successfully. They slacken their efforts and give up quickly in the face of difficulties. They are slow to recover their sense of efficacy following failure or setbacks. Because they view insufficient performance as deficient aptitude it does not require much failure for them to lose faith in their capabilities. They fall easy victim to stress and depression (Bandura, 1994). Teachers work for the aim of motivating the students, for the comprehension of the subjects by the students, for the development of students’ thinking styles and life skills and for the positive changes of the students. Teacher who has a positive perception of self efficacy may have more advantaged to achieve these matters. When individuals have low self-efficacy expectations regarding their behavior, they limit the extent to which they participate in an endeavor and are more apt to give up at the first sign of difficulty. Their efficacy beliefs serve as barriers to their career development (Hackett and Betz, 1981). In this respect teachers’ seeing themselves sufficient about the strategies used in the classroom will let them to be more successful about the negative behaviours seen in the classroom. Pajares (1992) found that there was a "strong relationship between teachers' educational beliefs and their planning, instructional decisions, and classroom Güngör Keskinkılıç, Derya Çınar 977 practices" (p. 326) and that "educational beliefs of preservice teachers play a pivotal role in their acquisition and interpretation of knowledge and subsequent teaching behavior" (p. 328). Indeed, it seems that "beliefs are far more influential than knowledge in determining how individuals organize and define tasks and problems and are stronger predictors of behavior" (Pajares, 1992, p 311 quoted by: Albion, 1999.) Practical studies are getting more important day by day in teacher education. It is clear that when the applicant teachers are ensured to study practically their perception of self efficacy will advance, so they will have self confidence and feel themselves more efficient (Çoşgun ve Ilgar, 2004, quoted by: Otacıoğlu, 2008). Aim of the Study The aim of this study is to determine the efficacy perception of teachers’ practicing teaching strategies different branches working in primary education schools. For this aim these questions are answered: 1. Which strategies are mostly used during the lesson by the teachers? 2. Do teachers consider themselves sufficient about the teaching strategies they use? 3. Do teachers consider themselves sufficient about the teaching strategies emphasized in the curriculum? 4. Do the teachers have any problems while using teaching strategies? 5. What are the suggestions of the teachers about advancing the efficacy of using strategies? Method In this section there are 3 titles. Model of the Study This is a qualitative research. Interview technique was used in this research. To increase the reliability of the study interview forms are structured by the help of professionals. A pre-application was made with a teacher and some changes ane refinements were made according to this interview. The main interview was made with the researchers after the refinements. The Working Group of the Study The working study of the study consists of 15 teachers with different branches working for primary schools in Konya. Generalization is not aimed. The detailed determination of the case is aimed. 978 The Efficacy Perception on Teachers’ Practicing Teaching Strategies Analysis of Data Sub- aims of the study were analyzed one by one. Content analysis of data was made. In the study 15 teachers were interviewed. The answers of the teachers were taken without a change in the findings part. Findings and Comment In this part findings are discussed and evaluated under three titles according to the teachers attitudes. 1. Which strategies are mostly used by the teachers during the lesson? Teachers stated that they prefer using the strategies which allow concreting the subject. Except this they stated that they choose strategies as to the character of the lesson. The strategies stated by the teacher are; presentation, discovery and teaching with games. “I try to process the lesson with games if I can. I prefer activities which can be seen concretely and attributed by the children.” “Presenting, exampling… etc. But I prefer explaining the topics with doing examples.” 2. Do teachers consider themselves sufficient about the teaching strategies they use? Most of the teachers stated that they don’t find themselves sufficient; they have insufficiencies which should be completed about this matter. Also, they stated that for the lack of facilities in the schools create problems while using the strategies. A teacher stated that he find himself sufficient theoretically bu don’t find himself sufficient practically. Some of the statements are like that: “No, I have little knowledge of strategies, it is not sufficient. Also, I have some difficulties about practising them. I have some strategies generally used. I want to improve myself about this matter.” “I don’t find it so hard as my first year of teaching job. But I still have insufficiency. I find myself sufficient in some strategies but the facilities of my school are not adequate.” “I find myself sufficient in most of the teaching strategies. I have some small problems in some strategies during the pactice. “ 3. Do teachers consider themselves sufficient about the teaching strategies emphasized in the curriculum? Young teachers stated that they didn’t have enough education about the strategies emphasized in the new curriculum. They stated that they studied the new curriculum but need in service training about this matter. Güngör Keskinkılıç, Derya Çınar 979 “I don’t have sufficient knowledge about this matter. The education we had in university was not sufficient. We couldn’t learn the strategies well. We have learned a bit since we started the teaching job. Of course we have some difficulties. Especially we learned the changes about the new curriculum when we started the teaching job. When we were in university little information was given us.” “I don’t have sufficient knowledge. I know the strategies theoretically but I have difficulties in practice. So, I don’t prefer using new strategies and forget theoretical knowledge.” 4. Do the teachers have any problems while using teaching strategies? If so, what are these problems? Most of the teachers stated inadequate materials. Also there are teachers stated the inadequate time. Furthermore, the low backgrounds of the students make difficulties during the lesson. Some stated that different kinds of strategies are needed in the class. “I have some difficulties while using the teaching strategies for the lack of facilities of school. So I can’t use any strategy available for the subject. Also every strategy may not be available for the students’ background .” “Yes have some problems while using some strategies. These are, low background of the students, lack of materials, lack of time for some strategies.” 5. What are the suggestions of the teachers about advancing the efficacy of using strategies? The main view is to increase the in service training and practice dimension should ce considerated. Also teachers think that they should make effort to improve their teaching skills. They think that educational publications should be followed and read. The other suggestions of the teachers are; collaborating with the universities and colleagues, using internet more effective. “In service education should be given to the teachers. But these educations are generally very boring. Practice dimension should be increased. Which strategies are more available for the class levels should be determined and example processes should be demonstrated. Information about the new techniques in the new curriculum should be given with examples.” “Teachers can share their experiences and knowledge with their colleagues.” Results and the Suggestions The results and the suggestions according to the results are as below: 980 The Efficacy Perception on Teachers’ Practicing Teaching Strategies Teachers generally have problems about the practice process. Both preservice education and in service education giving importance to the practice process can enhance their efficacy and let them to be more effective in the lesson. Especially young teachers stated that they didn’t have sufficient education about the strategies in university. If information about the new curriculum is given to the education faculty students in the last year (fourth class) they will see themselves efficient in their first year of teaching job. Teachers stated that they can’t use all of the strategies and don’t find themselves sufficient about this matter. In ın service educations suggestions that some problems can be encountered but these are not permanent can be made. Problem solving techniques that can be used during the teaching process can be given to the teachers. Lastly they can ve encouraged to use strategies during the teaching process. References Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). New York: Academic Press. Hackett, G., and Betz, N. (1981). A Self-Efficacy Approach To The Career Development Of Women. Journal of Vocational Behavior 18, No. 3 (June 1981): 326-39. Albion, P. R. (1999). Self-Efficacy Beliefs as an Indicator of Teachers' Preparedness for Teaching with Technology. Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). http://www.usq.edu.au/users/albion/papers/site99/1345.html Otacıoğlu, S. G. (2008). Müzik Öğretmenliği Okul Deneyimi I Uygulamalarına Katılan Öğretmen Adaylarının Öz Etkililik-Yeterlilik Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi. C.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi Mayıs 2008 Cilt : 32 No:1 163-170 Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers' Beliefs And Educational Research: Cleaning Up A Messy Construct. Review Of Educational Research, 62 (3), 307332. Roudenbush, Stephen W., Rowan, B. and Cheong Y. F. (1990). Contextual Effects On The Self Efficacy Of High School Teachers. Center For Research On The Context Of Secondary School Teaching. Office Of Educational Research And Improvement. P: 90-124). Michigan. The Importance of Teaching Effective Communication Skills in Teacher Education Gülgün Sertkaya, Selcuk Universtiy – Turkey Abstract This presentation aims at clarifying the importance of teaching effective communication skills to the prospective teachers who are educated at the faculties of education. Since the communication style between the teachers and students is very important, in teacher education some necessary courses should be included in curriculum. The course of ‘Effective Communication Skills’ is one of them. It includes a necessary knowledge about how to address the students, the use of voice, stress and intonation, the importance of the first impression in communication, the use of body language properly…etc. After mentioning the main purpose of this paper in the introduction part, several definitions of the term ‘communication’ and the importance of it in educational arena both for the teachers and the students are mentioned in the second section. In the third section, some helpful recommendations are given to the prospective teachers and they are handled one by one. All prospective teachers, whatever their branches are, should pay attention to these useful recommendations, which is emphasized in the conclusion section of the paper. Introduction One of the reasons of the problems which have appeared on educational area so far is the lack of communication between the teachers and the students. This situation especially involves the deficiencies of the teacher from the communicative point of view. The course of ‘Effective Communication Skills’ can be helpful for the prospective teachers who are educated at the faculties of education of universities. It should be given in all the departments including the science, mathematics, language and literature, geography and history…etc. Today, at the faculties of education of universities in Turkey the course of ‘Effective Communication Skills takes place in the curriculum of just the foreign language teaching departments, not in the other departments. This 982 The Importance of Teaching Effective Communication Skills in Teacher Education curriculum has been in use for three years. We believe that if the same course is given in all the departments of faculties of education, there won’t be so much communicative problems between the students and the teacher in future. The teacher who has learnt something about the effective communication skills will certainly be more careful about using his/her voice, the way of addressing the students, body language…etc. Briefly, this paper aims at emphasizing the importance of teaching Effective Communication Skills to the prospective teachers who are educated in all the departments of Faculties of Education in Turkey. Definition of Communication and the Importance of It for the Teachers and Students in Educational Arena Communication, in a general sense, is a process of sending a message to the receiver by the sender. It is a basic need for people because people have to interact and communicate with each other naturally, emotionally and socially. Communication also constitutes the transactional function of language; that is to say that, the language is also used to transfer knowledge from one person to another, sometimes from one generation to the next. There are several ways of communicating feelings and ideas. As Finegan (1989:23) pointed out we can communicate our feelings and our moods with gestures as dancers do. We can also convey our emotions through painting or music. All these types of communication do not rely on language and they can be accepted as the modes of artistic communication. In linguistic communication language is the primary vehicle through which meaning is conveyed. There are three basic modes of linguistic communication: oral communication, which relies on the use of speech and hearing organs; writing, a visual representation and signing, which many hearing and speech impaired people (and their friends) rely on for communication. Among these three modes of linguistic communication mentioned above, especially speaking, that is the oral communication concerns the teachers in teaching and learning activities. To be able to get a success in oral communication, one should know a very simple art: that is the art of sending and receiving pictures from mind to mind. That is what we do while we are communicating with others. Briefly, communication is to send and receive pictures from one mind to another. As well as the concrete pictures, the abstract pictures can also be sent by means of communication. Normally, the person who is expected to do it in the best way is the teacher. The teacher-student communication is very effective in getting a success in education. A teacher is successful to the extent that he/she knows how to communicate with students. A teacher who has the ability of communicating Gülgün Sertkaya 983 with the others is the one who can use both the oral and body language effectively; also who can understand the oral and body language of his/her students in the best way. Communication between the teacher and students affects the quality of education directly. According to Bicakci (1998:110): A good teacher: a. gives clear and understandable explanations. b. speaks in a proper time and in an effective way. c. pays attention to the personal differences among the students. d. does not focus on the students themselves, but their behaviours. He/she does not judge the students, but communicates with them by learning their inside world. Finally, the authority of the teacher should never affect the communication between the teacher and the students in a negative way. All kinds of communication problems between two sides should be discussed in a respectful atmosphere as soon as possible. Thus, the education will be more efficient and productive; also the both sides will be happier and more satisfied. Recommendations for the Prospective Teachers Who Are Educated At the Faculties of Education of Universities Eye contact with the students is necessary The most striking part of the human body is the face, and the most striking part of the face is the eyes. The communication between two persons begins with the eye contact. This contact in classroom condition will be helpful for both the teacher and the students. If a teacher has a proper eye-contact, his or her ability of getting an effective communication with students strongly increases. The main purpose of eye-contact is to say that ‘I am talking to you.’ Of course the eye-contact is not to stare or to look fixedly at someone or somewhere. That is a polite type of look to everyone in class. Eye contact is helpful for the students to be able to understand the lesson in a better way. That is also helpful for the teacher to be able to control whether the students have understood the lesson or not. If the teacher catches different kinds of expressions on the face of the students, he/she can take some precautions. Face to face communication enables the teacher to realize the negative expression on the students’ face and to give a message immediately to make the students feel better. However, some teachers are a bit shy or maybe because of a different reason they prefer looking at the different parts of the classroom, sometimes the book in their hands or sometimes just their hands rather than the students. They may also talk to the students while they are writing something to the board turning 984 The Importance of Teaching Effective Communication Skills in Teacher Education their back to them. That is not a good behaviour or habit for the teachers and it affects learning and teaching activities in a negative way. To sum up, the role of a good eye contact with the students should be explained to the prospective teachers who are educated at universities. The teacher should always be kind to the students To caress the students’ hair or to touch their shoulders can be very effective for some students. These are sincere behaviours and all students expect such friendly behaviours from their teachers. In fact, no one in society is perfect in all cases and everybody has good and bad sides, strong and weak sides. For this reason, the people should be evaluated with their mistakes and success. In a class, every student has a different personality, because the genes, the life conditions, The cultural background he/she comes from are all different. For the teacher, to know these kinds of personal and psychological differences among the students is necessary to be able to get a success in this profession. The teacher should be careful about the following situations: - He/she shouldn’t critisize the students beside their friends. - He/she shouldn’t be so offensive and cruel to them. - He/she shouldn’t accuse, judge and insult the students. The act of critisizing, accusing, judging and insulting the students frequently is called ‘poisonous discipline’ by some psychologists and Cuceloglu ( 1994:32) states that this kind of poisonous discipline causes the students to have a lack of confidence and a lack of respect to themselves in future. These non-confident people live just to please the other people around. Although the students are unaware many times, teachers are effective persons in their lives and thoughts. It is told that if a teacher says ‘stupid!’ to the student and if he/she repeats it in different times, sometime later the student may think ‘I am stupid! I am really stupid’, because he has been labelled in that way by the teacher. Also, how the teacher says something is important as much as what he/she says in class. The teacher should use carefully chosen words. He/she should never be a bad sample to the children by using the slang language or by swearing beside them. He/she should never hurt the students’ feelings, but try to be friendly and full of love to them as much as possible. The teacher should know how to use his/her voice in the best way Human voice has the greatest role in speech and in communication. Among all the creatures on earth, just the human beings have the capability of using their speech organs so effectively in communication. The use of the vocal apparatus like the lips, the tongue, the teeth, the different parts of the palate, Gülgün Sertkaya 985 larynx and the vocal cords, also the nasal cavity constitutes the oral communication. As well as these speech organs, the importance of the diaphragm is very great indeed, because the diaphragm breath is known as the best way of breathing in speaking just like singing song. In fact, speaking is similar to singing and the correct breathing is important for not only the musicians and the singers, but also the speakers and the teachers. According to the experts, the diaphragm breathing, which enables the lungs to get wider and to store more air, is the most appropriate way of breathing. It also enables the voice to be controlled in an easier way than the other types of breathing by using the upper part of the chest or thoracic cavity (an anatomical term). Everybody knows that the abdominal cavity descents and ascents during the diaphram breathing and this is realized especially in sleep. The prospective teachers should take some exercises of this kind of breathing by themselves or if it is possible by the help of a musician from time to time during their university education. Teachers should also have a good speech voice, but unfortunately this is mostly genetic. A good speech voice has these characteristics: - - It should be strong enough to be heard by every student in class, even those at the back row. Men are luckier than women in this case as they have a stronger voice. The speed of the voice is important for the listeners. There should be a correspondence between the speed of the voice and the speed of the perception by the listeners. The speed of the voice shouldn’t be too slow or fast; also it shouldn’t be the same during the whole speech. It should be changed from time to time according to the topic. The speech voice of the teacher should be pleasant. The tone of the voice shouldn’t be irritating, growling (or wheezy) or rustling. Very soft and gruff voices are also disadvantages for the teachers. The speech voice of the teachers should be friendly and reliable. Although it is concerned with the speech style rather than the voice quality, it is told that sometimes in giving a confidence to the listener, voice is also effective. In this section, especially the importances of the voice quality of the teachers and the correct way of breathing have been handled. Some similar points like diction, the correct pronunciation, the correct use of the stress and intonation will be handled in the following sections. Of course, we shouldn’t expect every prospective teacher to have a wonderful voice quality but at least they have to be aware of the importance of the voice in this profession and they should try to improve it by means of different types of exercises like diaphram breathing and shouting, reading and speaking loudly…etc. 986 The Importance of Teaching Effective Communication Skills in Teacher Education Teaching is not speaking without stopping Teachers are the long -winded speakers like lecturers and politicians; that is, they hold the floor many times in class. However, we should know that teaching is not speaking without stopping. The time of the students’ concentration is quite limited and the teacher should always be aware of the time. As soon as a few minutes pass, he/she should ask some questions or find several ways to make them participate the lesson. If the teacher talks too much, the lesson can be boring for the students even if the topic is interesting. This negative atmosphere can easily be felt if you look at their eyes, their behaviours, the level of participation and excitements. In a short time a noise rises in class. It is the duty of the teacher to take some precautions for this noise and some negative results. Even if it is a very theoretical and difficult course, the teacher should try to make it enjoyable. In this case, to make use of the student-centered approach rather than the teacher-centered can be helpful. Thus, the teacher will not get so tired at the end of the day and the students will learn to take more responsibility. Also, they will not get bored and sleepy, but more active and happier. Teachers should be good users of the standard form of their native language In this section, first what the standard language is or what makes a language standard will be handled. Trudgill (in Wardhaugh, 1992:31) defines Standard English as follows: ‘Standard English is that variety of English which is usually used in print, and which is normally taught in schools and to non-native speakers learning the language. It is also the variety which is normally spoken by educated people and used in news broadcasts and other similar situations. The difference between standard and non-standard, it should be noted, has nothing in principle to do with differences between formal and colloquial language, or with concepts such as ‘bad language’….’ In the same way, Richards (1992:351) points out that standard language is the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or a nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language. A Standard variety is generally used in the news media and in literature, described in dictionaries and grammars… In the words of Crystal(1997:117) ‘If you went to Australia, and picked up a daily newspaper, you’d be able to read it. The words, the grammar and the spelling would be hardly any different from the newspapers you can buy in Britain. If you went to India and saw an English language newspaper there, you’d get the same impression. There’d be a few words and phrases referring to local Indian matters, but on the whole, you’d see straight away that the paper Gülgün Sertkaya 987 was written in the same kind of English as appears in Britain. In the USA, you’d see the same thing (apart from a few spelling differences). After mentioning the views of some linguists about the standard form of language, briefly we can say that any teacher, whichever branch he /she has, should use a proper language in the classroom. It should be far from the regional or social dialects as much as possible just like the speaking style of a television speaker who presents the news broadcasts or any serious programme. Thus, all the students can understand the teacher easily whatever their dialects and cultural backgrounds are. Teachers should be understandable; they shouldn’t have any diction deficiencies Some teachers can be observed to have several diction deficiencies; and for this reason, they may not be so understandable. These are some of the diction deficiencies: - Sentences can be left incomplete. There may be some syntactic (grammatical) mistakes in their sentences. Some words are pronounced incorrectly. Sometimes a language handicap may cause it. There may also be a fluency disorder from birth or childhood like stuttering (stammering). The use of stress and intonation can be problematic. They can put the stress on the wrong syllable of the word, or sometimes on a different word. Some ambiguous sentences having more than one meaning can be used by some teachers. This is because of the wrong usage of stress or sometimes because of a wrong word order. Some personal characteristics like shyness and rudeness, to say unnecessary words and sentences, skipping from one topic to another, unnecessary gestures …etc. affect the speech of the teacher in a negative way. Most of these problems can be solved by reading more, by taking pronunciation, stress, intonation and also fluency exercises. Sometimes a treatment can be needed in the case of stuttering. Teachers should use the body language properly and effectively In addition to ‘eye-contact’, all kinds of body movements and facial movements of the teachers are effective in classroom setting. Especially, everybody has an agreement on the importance of the first impression in communication. In getting the first contacts with students, first the outward appearance of the teacher including his/her wearing style, secondly his/her voice 988 The Importance of Teaching Effective Communication Skills in Teacher Education and thirdly the words uttered are effective for the students. It shouldn’t be forgotten that there is no a second chance for the first impression in classroom setting. Students are the best and the most careful observers of their teachers. For this reason, the teachers should use the body language in the best way. They should always be calm, comfortable and natural in front of the students. Even if they (especially the young teachers) get excited, they shouldn’t show it. They should know where to put their hands while talking, in which part of the classroom they should stand up or walk, when to smile, when to be serious. They should not try to look like an authority symbol or like an angel all the time; however, they should mostly have a positive energy and try to reflect it to the students with a friendly manner. Teachers should be creative and they should know how to make use of the ways of affecting the others Teachers should always use new and different methods in their classes, because to find the best way to be able to teach something is their main duty. Even if he/she has taught the same lesson for many times, a teacher should spend just a few minutes on what he/she can do differently to make the next day’s lesson more interesting and enjoyable for the students. He/she should think which methods or materials can be used, how the students can be motivated…etc. Sometimes just a small change may cause great differences. It may be a short story or a real experience which the teacher himself had lived, or a useful television programme. If the teacher uses his/her imaginative power in the best way, everything will be better during the lesson. Thus, both the teacher and the students will get rid of monotony. Teachers should be good listeners and they should be open to the opposite views Listening as well as speaking is a very important part of communication and teachers should also be good listeners of their students. If just the teacher talks, the students can not find an opportunity to tell the things which worry and disturb them or anything they want to share with the others. While listening, the teacher is of course silent; but that is not enough. Some gestures, especially some facial movements are also needed to show his/her reactions. It means that the teacher is giving all his/her care to the student. Listening to the student in an effective way provides a close and meaningful connection between two sides. In fact, listening is a mutual behaviour. Both sides expect to be listened by the other side. Especially, the student who knows that the teacher is giving importance to him/her develops the sense of giving value to the other people. Gülgün Sertkaya 989 The respect and confidence he feels to himself/herself increase; he/she becomes happier and feels fine emotions to the teacher. There is a fact that if students feel that they are loved, listened and respected, they do not become so problematic for the teacher. Thus, time which is wasted for the discipline is spent by teaching and learning more things. Also, if the teachers are good listeners, they will not have a problem in persuading the students even if there is an opposite view between two sides. A teacher is successful to the extent that he/she can send the pictures in his/her mind to the students’ mind Carter (1978:12) emphasizes that communication is just sending the pictures in your mind to the listener’s mind perfectly. In this way, everybody can be a good communicator. First, it is necessary to see the pictures in front of your eyes clearly and be sure of them. Later, you can send them to the other side in a perfect way. The picture you want to send can belong to an object, a place, a person or any kind of concrete or abstract notion. A teacher should have a skill to describe the picture in mind and send it to the students. He/she should find the appropriate words easily for this description and send the picture fluently. This is an ability which can be improved in time by the teachers. In other words, by taking practise, the teacher can describe the picture in mind perfectly as if it was in front of his/her eyes. In this description, he/she chooses the best words and expressions. If the picture in teacher’s mind is clear enough, the proper words will be found easily. Thus, the teacher will not get a difficulty in putting what he/she feels into words. However, if some negative factors exist; that is, if the teacher feels himself excited, angry, tired, unhappy, anxious, restless…etc., he/she may not send the pictures in mind to the students’ mind properly. These negative factors almost cease the communication. Briefly, teachers should be happy, positive, calm, willing and self-confident to be a good picture sender. They should also get a sufficient word stock to be able to express everything in the best way. Conclusion In this presentation, mainly, the importance of teaching effective communication skills to the students who are educated at the education faculties of universities has been handled. This is a necessary course for the prospective teachers and it should be included in the curriculum of all departments. In the scope of this course, especially the recommendations mentioned in the third section should be taken into consideration. In fact, there are much things to say about teaching effective communication skills in teacher education, because a good communication is a skill which all teachers should have from birth. However, it is always possible to improve it during the university education. 990 The Importance of Teaching Effective Communication Skills in Teacher Education This presentation is especially concerned with what can be done to improve the communication skills of the prospective teachers at faculties of education by the lecturers or instructors of universities. References Bicakci,Ilker (1998) Iletisim ve Halkla Iliskiler Ankara:MediaCat Yayınları. Carter, Arnold (1978)Etkin iletisim Istanbul:Yeni Guven Matbaası. Kurun (Ceviren:Zeynep Guden) Crystal, David (1997) Language A to Z Longman Group UK Limited. Cuceloglu, Dogan (1994) Insan ve Davranısı Istanbul:Remzi Kitabevi. Finegan, E and Besnier, N.(1989) Language:Its Structure and Use San Diago:Harcourt Brace. Richards, Jack C& et al (1992) Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics London. Wardhaugh, R (1992) An Introduction to Sociolinguistics New York: Basil Blackwell. The Meanings Attributed to the Future Features of Teachers by Prospective Teachers Ergin Erginer, Fevzi Dursun, Gaziosmanpasa University – Turkey Abstract Roles behaviors, attitudes of the teachers, methods and techniques applied may change in the future, just like they did in the past. This study aims at revealing the meanings attributed by the prospective teachers to the future features of teachers. A content analysis was made on the meanings attributed by the prospective teachers to the future features of teachers in this study which was designed with qualitative method. Semi-structured interview form of which validity was tested with the opinions of experts was used. In the form the single question and its ten subquestions were related to teacher and structured drilling method. Hyperresearch analysis program was used in the analysis of the data and teacher features were categorized through content analysis. In the realibility test of the study, involuntariness of the prospective teachers was eliminated to collect evidences concerning internal coherence (credibility). Whether the findings are generalisable for similar studies in another context was submitted to the approval of specialists in order to collect evidences concerning external coherence (transferability). The study was conducted in the Faculty of Education, Gaziosmanpasa University, in the spring semester of 2007- 2008 academic year. Universe was studied and the sample was determined with snowball method. The findings of the research were related to those of the other studies and the proposals concerning future were developed. Key words: Prospective teacher, future features of teachers Introduction Given that the features of the teachers, such as roles, attitudes, methods and techniques used by them have changed in time, it is a high possibility that they 992 The Meanings Attributed to the Future Features of Teachers by Prospective Teachers will continue to change in the future. In this context, their openness to change is of crucial importance. The information which is collected from each section of the society in respect to teacher’s tendency to be open for change is an important source of information for the design of the training to be provided to them. This source should also include the opinions of the prospective teachers as well. This study reflects the opinions of the prospective teachers in Turkey. A review of former studies into teacher behaviors in Turkey indicates that the sensitivity to the issue dates back to recent times (Ertürk, 1970, 1986; Küçükahmet, 1976; Paykoç, 1981; Senemoğlu, 1984; Gözütok, 1988; Pektaş, 1989; Nas, 1989; Sönmez, 1992; Gürkan, 1993, Ergün ve Duman; 1998, 2000; Terzi, 2000; MEB (EARGED), 2001, Geban, Çiçek, Başaran, Demirbaş and Maden, 2001; Can, 2004; MEB, 2004; Erdoğdu, 2006). These studies are followed by many others (nearly 170) which deal with teacher behaviours together with parameters such as classroom tasks and behaviours, communication, student success, classroom management, democratic attitude and behaviors, etc. *(http://tez2.yok.gov.tr/). In addition, we have discussed the general nature of the behaviors in studies which deal with teacher’s beliefs about learning and teaching from a constructive perspective, (Prawat, 1992) and the mental processes in teachers’ classroom behaviours in cognitive studies analyzing the correlation between teachers’ thoughts and behaviors (Jansma, Wubbels, Korthagen and Dolk (1997). Besides all these, there are also more radical perspectives on teacher behaviours (Phtiaka, 2002; Anderson, Blumenfeld, Pintrich, Clark, Marx, Peterson, 1995; Burgess and Carter, 1992). It is thought that there are a limited number of studies testing the opinions about how teacher behaviours will be determined in the future (Horozoglu, 1998). It is possible to use the studies on teacher metaphor in that they give clues about the change in teacher behaviours in the future. However, there are limitations to teacher candidates’ opinions in these studies, too (Çelikten, 2006). One can encounter with studies on teacher candidates’ characteristics like creativity (Oral, 2006) and subject instruction (for example, chemistry teaching). In their studies, Brownlee, Purdie and Boulton-Lewis (2003) state that teacher candidates’ knowledge about learning go though changes. Thus, one can suppose that teacher candidates’ standpoints towards the profession may experience a change in the future, too. Poulou (2005) also studied the emotional and behavioural difficulties of teacher candidates. In this context, it can be * The studies mentioned have been analyzed by the researcher while conducting the study. But, it has not been possible to cite all the studies in the text due to the lack of page restriction in the full text. If interested, the reference list on teacher behaviors can be requested from the researcher through e-mail (erginer@gop.edu.tr). Ergin Erginer, Fevzi Dursun 993 thought that the basic variables which will determine the teacher candidate’s behaviors in the future are the emphasis that learning to teach is the primary difficulty in education (Sumara and Luce-Kapler, 1996) and the factors affecting the learning world of teachers (Kelly, 2006). In his study into the teacher candidates’ beliefs about their changing roles, Von Wright (1997) concluded as the following: Prospective teachers when they enter their education on the one hand tendto carry with them explicit expectations which strongly reflect the values of what is considered pedagogically correct. At the same time students express implicit beliefs and underlying conceptions of human development, which in many cases are incoherent. During teacher education the pedagogically correct beliefs might become replaced, but implicit beliefs as affinity to certain pedagogical discourses are not changed or brought to awareness unless they are seriously challenged and problematised. Yet these beliefs direct the students' attention. Changing demands on the teacher role bring about expectations on a shift in thinking about teaching and learning. Teacher education and educators can play important roles in making the students aware of their everyday beliefs and eventually change them. Determining the perceptions on the prospective teacher change in teacher behaviours will be useful by providing the teacher training systems with the necessary data. Concept lists for teacher characters in the future may prove inspiring for the studies of teacher trainers. The model for the methodology of the study has been presented below. Methodology This study aims at revealing the way through which the prospective teachers attribute meanings to the features of the future teachers. In the study which was designed with a qualitative method, a content analysis was made on the features of the future teachers. The objective of the study is to determine the opinions of the prospective teachers in respect to the possible changes in the features of the future teachers. Semi-structured interview form whose validity evidences were tested with the opinions of experts was used. Single question and subsidiary ten questions were related to each other through structured drilling method. Hyperresearch analysis program was used in the analysis of the data and concept lists were categorized through content analysis. In the reliability test of the study, it was attempted to eliminate the involuntariness of the prospective teachers to collect evidences concerning internal coherence (credibility). Whether the findings are generalisable for similar studies in another contexts were submitted to the approval of specialists in order to collect evidences concerning external coherence (transferability). 994 The Meanings Attributed to the Future Features of Teachers by Prospective Teachers The study was implemented in the Faculty of Education, Gaziosmanpasa University, in the spring semester of 2007- 2008 academic year. Universe was studied and the samples were determined with snowball method. The findings of the research were related to those of the other studies and proposals concerning future were developed. Findings Expected Positive Features of the Future Teachers Expected changes of the features of the future teachers are summarized under four themes. These features are personal traits, professional features, communicative features and actual& intellectual features. Positive Personal Traits: Below, Table 1 contains positive personal teacher characteristics expected by teacher candidates from teachers in the future: Table 1: Positive Personal Traits (Concept Lists) • • • • • • • Self-confident Sympathetic Stable Not very serious Understanding Taken as a model Younger • • • • • • • Self-sacrificing Humanitarian Positive Cheerful Responsible Fair Forgiving • • • • • • • Patient Compassionate Mature Soft-spoken Reliable Objective Sincere • • • • • • • Calm Hopeful Charismatic Respectful Self-aware Decent Able to admit his mistakes It is generally possible to explain the positive personal characteristics expected from teachers in the future through affective forms. Thus, we can say that humanistic values will gain importance and the teachers will be especially patient. In addition, it is a surprising finding that the teachers will be more charismatic, younger and more dynamic. Positive Professional Features: Below, Table 2 contains positive professional teacher characteristics expected by teacher candidates from teachers in the future: 995 Ergin Erginer, Fevzi Dursun Table 2: Positive Professional Features (Concept Lists) • Not official • Makes research and learns with his students • Not terrifying • Has strong command of language • Analyzes the personal traits of the students • Monitors the interests and abilities of the students • Handy • Does not judge without questioning • Does not impose pressure • Leader / Coach • Modern • Interested in the problems of the students • • • • • • • • • • • • Professional Uses technology Not authoritarian Friendly Democratic Respects the children and their honor Values the thoughts of his students Non-conservative Attaches importance to education, not to instruction Works efficiently Makes his students up-todate Creative • Not information provider • Responds to the developmental features of the children • Guide • Against physical violence • Monitors readiness • Free from bad habits • Attaches importance to his profession • Treats like a mother or father • Has the habit of reading • Soft- hard discipline understanding • Guides the students • Not normative • Model • Against violence • Has command on his field and equipped • Treats his students as human beings • Teaches not for money but because he loves teaching • Call his students by their names • Applied extra ordinary education methods • Acts according to a program/plan • Practical • nondiscrimination The positive professional characteristics expected from the teachers in the future are, in brief, being more democratic, forward looking and modern, gentle towards the children and providing a better model, more creative, more technical and practical. Positive Communicative Features: Below, Table 3 contains positive communicational teacher characteristics expected by teacher candidates from teachers in the future: Table 3: Positive Communicative Features (Concept Lists) • Constructive • Listening • Open to criticism • Transparent • Critical • Open to dialogue • • Empathic Flexible It is thought that the teachers in the future will be broad-minded and have characteristics which are open to persuade and be persuaded. 996 The Meanings Attributed to the Future Features of Teachers by Prospective Teachers Actual & Intellectual Features: Below, Table 4 contains actual and intellectual teacher characteristics expected by teacher candidates from teachers in the future: Table 4: Actual & Intellectual Features (Concept Lists) • Free from stereotyped judgements • Follower of Atatürk • Productive • Social • Believes in the necessity of personal development • Sophisticated • Follows renovations • Researcher • Contemporary • Active • Interested in philosophy and science • Forward thinking • High cultural level • Leader • Follows the agenda • Conscious • Aware of the developments over the world • Not traditional • Uses technology • Self-aware • free from stereotyped values • Entrepreneur • Adopts personal development and change The actual and intellectual characteristics expected from the teachers in the future are being aware of what is going on in the world and sensitive. It can be said that the teachers in the future will enjoy characteristics such as being inclined to scientific studies, productive, nontraditional and entrepreneurial. Expected Negative Features of Future Teacher Expected negative features of the future teacher were collected under three themes. These features are personal traits, professional features, communicative features and actual& intellectual features. Negative Personal Traits: Below, Table 5 contains negative personal teacher characteristics expected by teacher candidates from teachers in the future: Table 5: Negative Personal Traits (Concept Lists) • Insincere • Grown up with family pressure • Indifferent • Discordant • Harsh • Not applying his decisions • Unbalanced • Aggressive • • • • Angry Instable Sulky Concerned • Impatient • Fights for his interests • Intolerant The negative personal characteristics expected from teachers in the future are being aggressive and intolerant, inconsistent and nervous. It is pleasing to see that these characteristics are included only in predictions about the future, but the likelihood of the fact that these predictions may prove true is also worrisome. Negative Professional Features: Below, Table 6 contains negative professional teacher characteristics expected by teacher candidates from teachers in the future: 997 Ergin Erginer, Fevzi Dursun Table 6: Negative Professional Features (Concept Lists) • Full of information • Allocates more time to politics than his profession • Can not manage the students • Working under harder conditions • acts with the psychological problems caused by the fact that delayed appointment • Distant from the students • Not updated • Poor classroom management • Concerned about the late retirement age • Experiencing psychological problems as he can not give punishment • Does not love his profession • Speaks less with the effect of technology • Does not care development of the students • Does not serve to the respectability of the profession • Believes that his professional will become more difficult • Inefficient • Not listening to the students • Isolated from the children • Fixed- minded • Just concerned about doing the job and getting the wage It can be thought that especially psychological factors related to the life will determine the negative professional characteristics expected from the teachers in the future. One can argue that humanistic characteristics will decrease owing to the effect of technology. It can be proposed that they may know the subject well (for example, the chemistry if he/she is a chemistry teacher) which they are acquainted enormously but they may not prove so knowledgeable about teaching it (for example, teaching chemistry). It is fearful for the future of the children to think that more politicized, more indifferent, more materialist teachers who do not like their profession may take place in the educational system of the future. Negative Communicative Features: Below, Table 7 contains negative communicational characteristics expected by the teacher candidates from teachers in the future: Table 7: Negative Communicative Features (Concept Lists) • Does not listen • Does not love talking • Negative It is highly fearful to think that the teachers of the future may not like talking and listening and display negative behaviors. Consequences 1. Prospective teachers believe that there will be positive changes in features of the future teachers. Among these features to be seen in teachers of the future are being patient, showing sympathy, focusing on development of the student, being a guide to the students, according to majority of the respondents in the study. the the the the 998 The Meanings Attributed to the Future Features of Teachers by Prospective Teachers 2. Prospective teachers believe that teaching profession is still not present in the professions category and that it will be become a profession in that category in the future. 3. Prospective teacher believe that intellectual and scientific behaviors will be seen more in the teachers of the future. 4. Prospective teachers also underlined that some negative features may be seen in the teachers of the future, in respect to professional, personal and communicative abilities. Particularly, they believe that use of technology would decrease the human values, communicative abilities of the teachers. Recommendations 1. Prospective teachers are very concerned as they believe that the importance attached to the education of the teachers is weak. Thus action should be taken to improve the quality of the education faculties, existing problems should be eliminated and financial resources should be created. 2. In respect to the use of technology in the education of teachers, development of behavior models which may eliminate the human features of the teacher should be prevented. References Anderson, L.M., Blumenfeld, P., Pintrich, P.R., Clark, C.M., Marx, R.W., Peterson, P. (1995). Educational psychology for teachers: reforming our courses, rethinking our roles, Educational Psychologist, 30(3): 143-157. Boz, Y. and Uzuntiryaki, E. (2006). Turkish prospective teachers’ beliesfs about chemistry teaching, International Journal of Science Education, 28(14): 1647-1667. 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(1989). “İlkokul öğretmenlerinin sınıf içi davranışları gösterme düzeylerine etki eden faktörler”, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Uludağ üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Bursa. Ocak, G. ve Gündüz, M. Eğitim fakültesini yeni kazanan öğretmen adaylarının ögretmenlik mesleğine giriş dersini almadan önce ve aldıktan sonra ögretmenlik mesleği hakkındaki metaforlarının karşılaştırılması, AKÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 8(2): 293-309. Oral, G. (2006). Creativity of Turkish prospective teachers, Creativity Research Journal, 18(1): 65-73. Paykoç, F. (1981). Sınıf içi sözel öğretmen davranışlarının erişiye etkisi, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara. Pektaş, S. (1998). “Sözel olmayan öğretmen davranışlarının öğretime etkilerinin değerlendirilmesi” Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara. Phtiaka, H. (2002). Teacher education for a new world, International Studies in Sociology of Education, 12(3): 353-374. Poulou, M. (2005). Perceptions of students with emotional and behavioural difficulties, Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 10(2): 137-160. Prawat, R.S. (1992). Teachers’ about teaching and learning: a constructivist perspective, American Journal of Education, 100(3): 354-395. Saban, A. (2004). “Giriş Düzeyindeki Sınıf Öğretmeni Adaylarının “Öğretmen” Kavramına İlişkin İleri Sürdükleri Metaforlar, Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 2(2):131-155. Saban, A. Koçbeker, B.N. ve Saban, A. (2006). Öğretmen adaylarının öğretmen kavramına ilişkin algılarının merafor analizi yoluyla incelenmesi, Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri, 6(2), 461-522. Ergin Erginer, Fevzi Dursun 1001 Senemoğlu, N. (1984). “Sınıf İçi Öğretmen Davranışları Üzerine Bir Araştırma”, Yayınlanmamış Araştırma Raporu, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara. Sönmez, V. (1982). “İlkokul Öğretmenlerin Sınıf İçi Etkinlikleri, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 8: 97-106. Sumara, D.J. and Luce-Kapler, R. (1996). (Un) Becoming a teacher: Negotiating identities while learning to teach, Canadian Journal of education, 21(1): 65-83. Von Wright, M. (1997). Student Teachers’ Beliefs and Changing Teacher Role, European Journal of Teacher Education, 20(3): 257-266. The Meaning of Undergraduate, Graduate and Postgraduate Programs from the Point of Undergraduates Nida Temiz, Başkent University – Turkey Abstract The purpose of the study is to find out undergraduates’ thoughts about the meaning of the concepts “undergraduate”, “graduate” and “postgraduate” programs. Based on the convenience sampling method, the participants of the study were comprised 3rd grade undergraduates from the programs of Primary Education and Turkish Education in the Faculty of Education in Başkent University. The qualitative data of the study were gathered through open-ended questionnaire and interview during the fall semester in 2007-2008 academic year. The data was analyzed according to qualitative research. The results of the data analysis showed that the undergraduates used metaphors and classic definitions to define the concepts. Besides, the results of the analysis indicated that there were various meanings of the concepts for the undergraduates. Key words: Undergraduate, graduate, postgraduate education Introduction The organization of the Turkish national education system is outlined in Basic Law on National Education (Law no. 1739). This system can be summarized as namely; pre-school education, basic education, secondary education and higher education (OSYM, 2006). Pre-school education: The aim of the pre-school education is to contribute physical, cognitive and affective development of children and to help them acquire good habits, and to prepare them for basic education (OSYM, 2006). Pre –school education includes kindergartens and preparation classes (OSYM, 2006). Basic education: Basic education is compulsory. It aims providing children with basic knowledge. Besides, basic education ensures their physical, cognitive and moral development in accordance with national objectives (OSYM, 2006). 1004 The Meaning of Undergraduate, Graduate and Postgraduate Programs Secondary education: The aim of secondary education is to provide students to gain knowledge of general culture; to learn how to solve individual and social problems. Secondary education also prepares students, in line with their interests and talents, for higher education (OSYM, 2006). Higher education: The aim of higher education is to train manpower within a system of contemporary educational and training principles to meet the needs of the country. It provides high level specialized education in various fields for students who have completed secondary education (OSYM, 2006, p. 2). Higher education is all post – secondary programs (YOK, 2008). The system composed of universities and non-university institutions of higher education (police and military academies and colleges). Universities have faculties and four year schools, offering bachelor’s level programs, and two year vocational schools offering pre-bachelor’s level programs (YOK, 2008). Graduate level programs include master and doctoral programs (YOK, 2008). This study focused on higher education and graduate level programs. The study looked for the meanings of graduate, undergraduate and postgraduate education from the point of undergraduates. In this study, the term of undergraduate is used for higher education with four year and two year programs; graduate is for master programs and postgraduate is for doctoral programs. Purpose of the Study The main purpose of the study was to find out the meanings of undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate programs from the point of undergraduates. Research Question One major research question was investigated; 1. What are the meanings of undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate programs from the point of undergraduates? Method The current study was designed as a qualitative study based on the light of the characteristics of qualitative research to explore the research question. Participant of the Study Based on the purposeful sampling method, the participants of the study were comprised of 40 (35 female, 5 male) 3rd grade undergraduates from the department of Turkish education and 27 (25 female, 2 male) 3rd grade Nida Temiz 1005 undergraduates from the department of primary education in the faculty of education in Başkent University. Data Sources of the Study The prime data sources of the study comprised open-ended questionnaire and interview. Both data sources were prepared by the researcher and piloted before the actual implementation. Firstly, the open-ended questionnaire was implemented to all participants. Then, the researcher interviewed with the participants who used metaphors when explaining the meaning of undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate education in the questionnaire. Data Analysis Procedure The data analysis comprised of three main phases namely; data coding, generating categories, conclusion and interpretation. Under these main steps, there are also sub-steps. Results The main question of the open-ended questionnaire was “What are the meanings of undergraduate, graduate, postgraduate from your point of view?” Actually, the researcher expressed the note "please answer the question by writing what comes to your mind at first”. The overall data analysis of the answers of the participants to the question indicated the participants defined undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate programs in two different ways. The first way was using metaphors and the other was using classic definitions. Although most of the participants preferred to explain the meanings from their point of view in the classic way, number of the others was noteworthy as much as the first group. 27 of 67 participants used metaphors and 40 participants defined the terms in the classic way. Besides, the analysis revealed that there were four categories of metaphors. The first group composed of 11 participants used the metaphor of tree, the second group including eight participants used plant development as a metaphor, third group including six participants used human development and the last group with two participants used various metaphors when explaining the meanings of “undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate” from their point of view. The first three metaphors were illustrated as following on the basis of the participants’ explanations. 1006 The Meaning of Undergraduate, Graduate and Postgraduate Programs Postgraduate Postgraduate Graduate Graduate Undergraduate Undergraduate Illustration 1. The metaphor of human Illustration 2. The metaphor of tree Development Graduate Postgraduate Undergraduate Illustration 3. The metaphor of plant development The first group explained that undergraduate, graduate, postgraduate are steps of a ladder and they were related with each others. Accordingly, the first group thought that tree resembled the total picture composed of undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate education. They matched roots with undergraduate education; body with graduate and fruits with postgraduate education. The following excerpts belong to the participants from the first group. “… imagine a tree! The root of it is undergraduate education. The body of it is graduate education and the fruit which are final & delicious part of tree is postgraduate education.” (PF44) “I think undergraduate education is the first step for delicious academic life. This step is compulsory! Accordingly it resembles roots of a tree. The second Nida Temiz 1007 step is graduate education so it resembles body of the tree. Consequently, the postgraduate education resembles apples of apple tree.” (PF52) The analysis of the interviews revealed that the second group like the first group thought that undergraduate, graduate, postgraduate programs were interrelated with each other. In this regard, the second group explained the interrelation using metaphor of plant development from seed to plant. One participant expressed that “ I think all three are for picture of happiness. Like a plant development, undergraduate education resembles seed, graduate education resembles cion and the finally postgraduate resembles plant…. “(PF32) The third group like the first and second groups thought that undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate programs were related with each other. Besides, the third group used the metaphor of human development when explaining the concepts. For them, undergraduate education is like a baby, graduate education is like a child and the postgraduate education is like an adult. The other two participants used different metaphors. One used stair for undergraduate, roof for graduate education and interior design for postgraduate education. The other used world was for undergraduate, solar system for graduate and cosmos for postgraduate. The analysis of the interviews indicated that all participants used metaphors thought that the last step of the academic career was postgraduate education. Besides, the analysis of the interviews implied that the participants had positive views for “undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate programs”. All defined that undergraduate and graduate programs were prerequisites for happy end which was postgraduate. The analysis of the questionnaire showed that participants who preferred to explain the meanings of “undergraduate, graduate, postgraduate programs” using classical definitions were grouped into various categories according to terms. For the meaning of undergraduate education, there were seven categories namely; phase of acquiring profession for job, 1st step of academic life, certificate, requirement of life, the most enjoyable phase of schooling, label, the last stage of schooling. The data analysis of open-ended questionnaire implied that the participants explaining the meaning of undergraduate as phase of acquiring profession for job, certificate and requirement of life focused on vocational aspect of the undergraduate education. The following excerpts were taken from the questionnaires. ….it is one word! The word is job. Yes, the meaning of undergraduate is taking certificate of undergraduate…. (PM4) 1008 The Meaning of Undergraduate, Graduate and Postgraduate Programs … I have to have a job for my future so the meaning of undergraduate for me is certificate as necessity of any job. (PF8) The data analysis indicated that the participants who defined undergraduate as requirement of life expressed the necessity of having job like the participants whose meaning of undergraduate was certificate. PF 34 said “..it is requirement of life because I need a job to live. Thus, undergraduate education is requirement of life.” Another participant expressed that “I think undergraduate is requirement. Requirement is for life, my life. If I complete undergraduate education, I will have a job for my life” (PM66) The data analysis showed that there were seven categories for the meaning of graduate education namely; foreign language exam, stage of being expert, 2nd step of academic life, 1st step of academic life, exams, difficult education, thesis. The analysis of the questionnaire revealed that the participants who defined the meaning of graduate education as a foreign language exam wanted to follow graduate education after undergraduate education. Also, the data analysis of the study showed that the participants thought that there was a big obstacle for them; the obstacle was foreign language exam. PM22 stated that “… graduate education is foreign language exam for me because I want to follow graduate education. However, I have to pass foreign language exam…..It was difficult for me.” Another participant wrote that “Graduate education = foreign language exams and I want to make master…. (PF 47)” The analysis of the questionnaires indicated that there were seven categories for the meanings of postgraduate education namely; academic life, ambition, 3rd step of academic life, prestige, last step of academic life, difficulty, craziness. The analysis of the data implied that the meanings of the postgraduate education were seen as academic life for most of the participants. However, some of them thought that postgraduate education was the second step of academic life; for some of them it was third step of academic life and for some of them it was directly academic life. One of the participants said that “I think postgraduate education is academic life” (PF 12), another participant stated that “… postgraduate education is last stage of academic life” (PF19). Although, most of the participants matched the meaning of postgraduate with academic life, there were different perspectives for example PF 21 stated that “My meaning of postgraduate education is craziness because the postgraduate students around me are hardworking people. Hardworking people are crazy for me…” The another result of the data analysis showed that the number of the participants whose meaning of postgraduate was ambition were noticeable. Besides, the data analysis showed that the participants did not want to follow postgraduate education in their future. Also they used the word ambition as Nida Temiz 1009 negative. The following excerpts from the questionnaires were examples of the result. “I do not think myself as postgraduate student because postgraduate students were ambitious people. I am not. Postgraduate education is ambitious for me. (PF5)” “Postgraduate = ambition. I think if we use the word ambition in the field of education, this is the right time to use it. I mean that the right time is the time of defining postgraduate program. (PM38)” The overall data analysis of the current study implied that there were various meanings of “undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate education” in participants’ minds. Besides the data analysis implied that meanings interrelated with the participants’ experiences and views about their own career planning for their future life. Discussion A number of areas for debate, discussion and research emerged from the results of this study. First of all, there were various meanings of “undergraduate, graduate, postgraduate programs” for undergraduates and so a question emerged from the result. The question of whether the undergraduates should be informed about the formal meanings with purposes of “undergraduate, graduate, postgraduate program”. Secondly, the results of the study indicated that the meanings of undergraduate, graduate, postgraduate were matched mostly with academic life, academic career. Some of the participants expressed the term “academic life” as a life which was far from real life and was composed of work and work. This result indicated that there was confusion because academic life is not disconnected from real life. Academic life can not be disconnected from real life! This confusion can be resulted from the gap between theory and practice. This is a real problem of academic life and the confusion is one of the implications of the problem on the undergraduates. Neumann (2005) stated “While the distinctions between pure and applied, theory and practice appear neat and clear – cut for discussion purposes, in actuality they overlap and blur (Neumann, 1993, 1992; Rip, 2000 as cited in Neumann, 2005, p. 185). As Neumann expressed, theory and practice overlap in real life situations, for this current study it is possible to say that theory stands for theoretical part of academic life and practice represents the real life aspect of academic studies. Thus, it is not necessary to find clear cut distinctions between two. This approach should be shared with undergraduates in order to delete their confusion about the academic life. 1010 The Meaning of Undergraduate, Graduate and Postgraduate Programs Another result of the current study, some of the participants defined the meaning of postgraduate education as ambition. Besides, they used the word “ambition” negatively. Johnsson (2007) stated that the questions about how you become a PhD were discussed at the beginning of last century. She added that some argued that you were born to it and some thought that you could be qualified as a researcher by training (Odén, 1991 as cited in Johnsson, 2007). Some believed that personality, enthusiasm for the task and hard work of one’s own created the researcher while some thought advanced and orderly training were vital for development of disciplines (Odén, 1991 as cited in Johnsson, 2007). Thus, there are various thoughts about becoming a PhD. However, it should not be important how one become a PhD since there can not be one rote because of individual differences. Again for the current study, the meaning “ambition” showed confusion. The confusion was about the characteristics of a PhD or postgraduate student also directly about academicians. Therefore, the undergraduates should be informed about the characteristics of academicians. The results of the study showed that some of the participants defined the meaning of postgraduate education as foreign language exam. It meant that when they heard the word “postgraduate”, foreign language exam came to their minds. The foreign language, mostly English, is important for graduate and postgraduate education. Higher Education Council (YOK) started a program to sponsor thousands of students for graduate study abroad with the aim of building up base of highly qualified, foreign educated faculty for 24 newly established universities in 1993 (Mathews, 2007). YOK’s new administration in 1995 made changes in the program’s selection procedures. Mathews (2007) stated that “One of the key elements of these changes was the inclusion of a high foreign language proficiency requirement, which served both meet certain ideological goals of the new administration as well as presuming to reduce the high degree of student failure abroad.” (p.645). Although YOK gave importance on foreign language proficiency for the students for studying abroad, foreign language is important not only for them but also for the students studying in Türkiye because foreign language enables to the students to communicate with the world. It is not normal to define the meaning of postgraduate as foreign language exam. This definition implied that there was anxiety about the exams. This anxiety implied that there was a problem related with our foreign language curriculum from primary to higher education. Therefore, the foreign language curricula should be revised. As a result, the undergraduates should be informed about the purposes and functions of “undergraduate, graduate, postgraduate education” in order to encourage their lifelong learning, career planning and to open new horizons for their future. All the information suggested to be given to undergraduates for their future. They have right to learn how academic life is with all details and Nida Temiz 1011 realities in order to make correct decision; to chose correct choice for their future. References Emilsson, U., M. & Johnsson, E. (2007). Supervision of supervisors: on developing supervision in postgraduate education [Electronic version]. Higher Education Research & Development 26, 2, 163-179 Mathews, J. (2007) Predicting international students’ academic success …may not always be enough: Assessing Turkey’s foreign study scholarship program [Electronic version]. Higher Education 53: 645-673, Springer Science + Business Media B.V. DOI 10.1007/10734-005-2290-x Neumann, R (2005). Doctoral Differences: Professional doctorates and PhDs compared [Electronic version]. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management 27, 2, 173-188 OSYM (2006). Selection and Placement of Students in Higher Education Institutions in Turkey, Higher Education Council Student Selection and Placement Center (ÖSYM) Ankara July, Retrieved April, 2008, http://osym.gov.tr/dosyagoster.aspx?DIL=1&BELGEANAH=22638&D OSYAISIM=OSYM.doc YOK, Outline of the Turkish Education System, Retrieved May, 2007, http://www.yok.gov.tr/webeng/outline.html The Opinions of Teacher Candidates about Developing Vocabulary Çetin Çetinkaya, Gazi University – Turkey Olcay Özdemir, Zonguldak Karaelmas University – Turkey Abstract One of the important methods of developing reading, which is defined as comprehension period, is word teaching. Limited word teaching results in artificial acquisition and wrong vocabulary knowledge. What is important in word teaching is the quality of the time spent, not the length of the time. Sufficiently equipped teachers are also needed in addition to a well-planned, systematical and continious education program is required for an efficient word teaching. Besides the support of the teacher such as evoking and maintaining the interest for the word, creating an enthusiasm to increase the vocabulary knowledge of the student, the teacher needs to be proficient enough to use the methods such as associative method, finger method, groupping, direct word teaching, word mapping method, meaning analysis, word groupping and use of dictionary method. In this descriptive case study research, answers were searched for the question ‘what are the opinions of the candidate primary school teachers about developing the vocabulary knowledge?’. The research was carried out with students of Gazi University, Faculty of Education, Primary School Education Department. The semi structured survey form was applied to 90 senior students. In order to build up items which are expected to serve for the purpose of the study, the opinions of an expert were consulted while developing the data collection device. The items of the survey applied to the working group were analiyzed through the help of statistical techniques of “arithmetic mean and frequency”. Key words: Vocabulary, teacher candidates, vocabulary development methods. 1014 The Opinions of Teacher Candidates about Developing Vocabulary Introduction There are four types of vocabulary, which are listening, reading, speaking and writing. Listening and reading are intended for comprehensions while the other two are devoted to expression. Listening vocabulary of a person is consist of each words which are understood out of conversations. The achievement of this type of vocabulary lasts from the birth till school years. Listening vocabulary forms the foundation of other types of vocabulary and this vocabulary includes word differentiation and word recognition. Speaking vocabulary of a person consists of all the words that are used during verbal communication and attributed to himself. The writing aspect of the vocabulary is total of all the words which are used when the person is composing a written text. The vocabulary based on reading is formed out of all of the written words that can be recognized, distinguished and understood when the person reads. The term word recognition mentioned here refers to the accurate pronunciation of the given word(s) while word differentiation refers to not only accurate pronunciation but also knowing the meaning of the word(s). Reading, comprehension of reading and transform the understood into production are among the important skills that people expects out of the educational process in school. One of the most important components that form the content of reading is vocabulary and the development of this vocabulary. Durkin investigates the vocabulary with the following content: Vocabulary knowledge Kinds of new knowledge Ways to acquire vocabulary Features of effective instruction Instructional materials Name for familiar referent Direct instruction Make use what students know Basal readers New name for familiar referent Independent reading Show word relationships Self-selected books Meaning of referent expanded Use of word structure Allow for meaningful use Environmental of instructed word text Name for new referent Use of context Books about etymology Myths Teaching Them to Read (354) Word knowledge plays a huge role at reading comprehension. According to the theory we reach to the words by our intelligence or we deduct it from the context. Because of this, our intelligence tries to generate phases in a sentence. These unite with the guide of syntactical knowledge. All of our expressions are presented with systematically organized sentences and phases by our Çetin Çetinkaya, Olcay Özdemir 1015 intelligence. Word knowledge let us extend more meaning from text. If the exct meaning of the word is not known then deducting the correct meaning from the context depends on the reader's capability of understanding. Understanding what is read gets more difficult if some or the large part of the words in the text is not known. Interest in the relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension has a long history, and the relationship is intuitively obvious. Moreover, psychometric support for the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and comprehension has been strong. In factor analytic studies of reading comprehension, vocabulary knowledge have consistently emerged as a major component (Davis, 1944; singer, 1965; Spearrit, 1972; Thurstone, 1946), correlating very highly with comprehension ability. Nagy wrote, vocabulary knowledge is fundamental to reading comprehension; one cannot understand text without knowing what most of the words mean (1988). Purpose of this study is; “to determine the vision of candidate class teachers about the development of vocabulary”. Design This study is a descriptive situation assignation which aims to determine the vision of candidate class teachers about the development of vocabulary. The most commonly used data collection methods for case studies are interview, observation and document analysis. (Yıldırım & Şimşek 2005). Document analysis technique is utilized for this case study. Document analysis refers to the analysis of written materials about fact or facts which are subject of the research. Document analysis can be used as a stand alone data collection method in quantitative research and also can be used in conjunction with other data collection methods. Participants Data were used from 90 Primary School Education Department Student’s at Gazi University, Ankara. The reflected the 2007-2008 school years. The group of students contained 37 boys and 53 girls. Measures A form, consist of five open-ended questions; is developed as a data collection tool by the researcher. Special attention paid for the questions including the main topics while developing the form. An expert advice had been taken into account in order to prepare the items that helps the purpose of research when developing the data collection tool (Best & Kahn, 1989). 1016 The Opinions of Teacher Candidates about Developing Vocabulary Data Analysis Descriptive analysis technique is utilized to analyze the collected data. The collected data grouped by the similarities among them. Results The study, which aims the determination of the vision of candidate class teachers about the development of vocabulary, resulted with the following findings: Table 1: The thoughts of participants about their own vocabulary sufficiency Do you consider yourself competent enough in terms of vocabulary? f 1 I consider myself competent enough. 23 2 I do not consider myself competent enough. 67 Total 90 As table 1 points out, 23 participants consider themselves competent enough in terms of vocabulary while 67 of them consider themselves impotent out of 90 teacher candidates. Even though all of the participants had participated the courses primary reading and writing education and Turkish education, 67 of participants thinks that they are not competent. Participant number 13 states that: “I am not competent enough about the topic because of the lack of effort both from me and my teachers” (p.13). In contrast with this idea, 4 participants who consider themselves competent enough by participating the courses mentioned above states that the education was very effective on this topic. This big gap between the opinions can be explained by personal differences and interest. 6 participants who consider themselves impotent reported that they only know how to use a dictionary about this topic. 8 other participants who criticized undergraduate program, stated that they do not consider themselves competent enough because the education they took consists of only theory; the education should focus on practice more. There is only one student who participated a word teaching oriented course other than undergraduate level courses among the participants. The participants thoughts about the relationship between word teaching and reading comprehension is given in table 2. 96.6% of the participants gave an affirmative answer to the question of “is there relationship between reading comprehension and word teaching” and stated that there is linear relation between them while 3.4% gave negative answer and stated that there was not any relation between word teaching and reading comprehension. 1017 Çetin Çetinkaya, Olcay Özdemir Table 2: The thoughts of participant about the relationship between word teaching and reading comprehension What kind of relationship is there between word teaching and reading comprehension? f a Reading comprehension is in direct proportion relation with vocabulary. 32 b Word teaching prevents difficulties on reading comprehension.. 12 c There is direct proportion relation between word recognition percentage and reading comprehension percentage. 8 d Word knowledge is a must for fast reading and comprehension. 6 e It is necessary to know the word to be able to give meaning to a text. 6 f In order to understand the text knowing the sentence and to understand the sentence knowing the word is mandatory. 6 g We can not understand what we read if we do not know the word. 5 h Is dependent to the number of unknown words in a text. ****ne bağlı***** If the unknown words is limited comprehension can be realized while unknown words is to many realization can not be made. 4 ı Vocabulary is foreknowledge at some point which guides toward the text. 2 i Knowing the accurate meaning of the words is necessary in order to make accurate meaing out of text. 2 j The time for comprehension of text and time for reading increases when the time for interpreting the words increases. 2 k It is still has effect on reading comprehension even though consideration only paid to the number of words read per minute not to comprehension. 2 l Comprehension affects by a number of variables. Word knowledge is one of these variables. 1 m There is linear relationship between word distinguishment and comprehension. 1 n Strategic reading should be realized since there is relation between vocabulary and comprehension. 1 Total 90 When table 2 is analyzed, the concluded results about the relationship between word teaching and reading comprehension are word teaching prevents difficulties on reading comprehension (12), word knowledge is a must for fast and accurate reading (6), text comprehension realization depends on the number unknown words in the text (4), vocabulary can be considered as a 1018 The Opinions of Teacher Candidates about Developing Vocabulary foreknowledge in terms of reading comprehension (2) and word knowledge is one of the many variables which effects reading comprehension (1). Wren (2000), after categorizing reading comprehension into two titles which are language comprehension and language analysis, states that the variables effects the reading comprehension actively are word knowledge, grammar, background knowledge, phonology, syntax, meaning knowledge, alphabet knowledge, letter knowledge, sound awareness and cipher knowledge. As can be concluded, word knowledge is an effective variable on reading comprehension. What role does word knowledge (vocabulary) have in predicting the reader’s comprehension skill? In addressing this question, there are three palusible theoretical views (Anderson & Freebody). The first theory, instrumentalist, claims that knowing the meaning of words helps the reader in text comprehension. The second theory is referred to as the aptitude position, which claims that score on a vocabulary test is due to the person’s mental agility. That is, if the reader has a quick mind he/she will have learned many words as well as understand the text. The third hypothesis, knowledge, reflects the view that a person who has a large amount of exposure and thus, knowledge, will also perform well on a vocabulary test. Consequently, this high score aid the reader in comprehending the text. There are neither the theoretical resources nor the empirical data which might favor one of the above three hypothesis or a combination of the three. Altough the three explanations are not conclusive, it will be assumed that vocabulary knowledge does aid reading comprehension (Perkins, 1982). Çetin Çetinkaya, Olcay Özdemir 1019 Table 3: The thoughts of participants about the time spent on word teaching in the class environment. The time spent on word teaching in the class environment f a Education **teaching** is made with only a few methods which is not enough. 21 b This situation changes accordingly with the foreknowledge and readiness of the student, the level of class and personal differences. 13 c The time spent is absolutely enough but the way time spent is more important. 10 d Enough time is spent if the program followed completely but mostly the program is ignored. 10 e No time spent on word teaching at all. 9 f Our vocabulary would not be this narrow if enough time devoted for this purpose. 7 g The number of words learned increases if more time spent on word teaching. 3 h The vocabulary of teacher is not enough though he can not teach to students. 3 ı Enough time can not be spent on word teaching since the program is too crowded. Nothing can be done about it. 1 Total 77 When table 3 is analyzed, the thoughts of participants about the time spent on word teaching in the class environment are; education is limited to a few number of methods (21), the situation would change depending on the personal differences (13), the lack of time spent on word teaching has affect (9), the time devoted for word teaching in classes is affected negatively because of the complexity of new primary school Turkish program. Especially the remarkable thought of teacher candidates is the lack of time spent on word teaching. 13 of the participants did not commented on the topic which shows that they have not analyzed the program. It is also remarkable that the new Turkish program which has been applied since 2004-2005 education year is not analyzed yet by the participants. 1020 The Opinions of Teacher Candidates about Developing Vocabulary Table 4: The thoughts of participants about the activities focusing on the development of vocabulary in Turkish program Turkish program f a The activities are sufficient enough but mostly are not applied by the teachers. The number of the activities in the program does not matter as long as they are not applied. 32 b The activities focusing on vocabulary in the program are pretty nice. There are plenty of activities suitable for the level of student. 8 c The number of activities is good but time is not enough. 5 d The content of all activities is same. Variation on content is required. 5 e The activities are sufficient applied under the topics of pre-reading, during reading and post-reading. 4 f It is a reality that the consideration paid on vocabulary is higher when compared with the previous program. 3 g The number of activities is very low. 3 h It is impossible to develop the vocabulary by supplying only one text. Different texts should be supplied. 3 ı Where is drama? Drama is very effective on the development of vocabulary but is not included in the program. 1 i The texts are not written with a rich language. Only unknown words are the target of the efforts. Nothing is done for the interest of the child. 1 Total 65 When table 4 is analyzed, the results that can be reached are; the activities that are focusing on word teaching are plenty (8), the awareness of teachers about the activities focusing on word teaching is insufficient and these activities are not applied in the classroom environment (32), the exceeded number of activities causing the problems about time (5), the activities do not address the differences and have identical content (5), these activities are used more when compared with previous programs (3), and some of the teacher candidates stated that the number of activities is not enough about word teaching in the program. 1021 Çetin Çetinkaya, Olcay Özdemir An average of 30 activities are arranged per class in accordance with the advantages such as the developing of vocabulary utilizing visuals, discovering of synonymous and antonym of the words, differentiating of meaning of homonym words, seeking the meaning of unknown words, generating words using prefixes and suffixes, reading by composing syllables out of sounds, words out of syllables, and sentences out of words, and distinguishing the dictionary meaning, figurative meaning and technical meaning of words. The teacher can choose and apply any of these activities which are suitable to himself, students, classroom environment and time and can develop similar of different activities. Table 5: Preferred methods for vocabulary development by the participants The methods you would choice in order to develop vocabulary Number of preferences 1 Utilizing dictionary 59 2 Using hints in the sentence and text 57 3 Word map method **kelime haritası*** 57 4 Key word method ***Anahtar kelime** 53 5 Developing concept 48 6 Associative method ****Ilişkilendirici yöntem 44 7 Grouping words Kelime gruplandırma 41 8 Direct word teaching Doğrudan kelime öğretimi 34 9 Grouping method Gruplama yöntemi 32 10 Meaning analysis Anlam analizi 30 11 Finger method Parmak yöntemi 8 When table 5 is analyzed, the results that can be found out are; teacher candidates prefer utilization of dictionary (59), usage of hints in the sentence and text, and word map methods (57), key word method (53), concept development (48), associative method (44), word grouping (41), direct word 1022 The Opinions of Teacher Candidates about Developing Vocabulary teaching (34), grouping method (32), meaning analysis (30) and finger method (8). Table 6: The Methods which the participants will prefer to use in improving vocabulary Number The methods that you will prefer to use in improving vocabulary of choice 1 2 3 4 5 6 Dictionary use; is one of the effective ways that can be appealed to improve vocabulary. There are a series of methods related to dictionary use. These methods should be tried to be given from simple to difficult as of the first class. Using the clues in the sentence and text; giving the meanings of the words in the context they are used depends on the use of the clues in the sentence and the text. This way of improving the vocabulary contributes a lot to the further learning of the child. However, the effective way of using this method necessitates the correct text choice. The materials prepared for the child should incorporate the clues necessary for improving the child’s vocabulary. Word Mapping Method can be used as from the fourth grade. What is emphasized in the basis of this method are the definition of the word, to what it resembles and the examples. The word intended to be taught should be chosen carefully and the child should, in this way, be taught the words that he has difficulty in learning. Key Words are the basic words, notions and word groups in the text i.e. sine qua non. The text cannot be easily understood without knowing these words. Even though some words chosen in relation to the text are known by the student, the specific meaning of the words in the text may not be known. The teacher should teach both these words’ meanings in the text and as different meanings of them as possible via different activities. There are also programs of first reading and writing that take this method as a base. 59 57 57 53 Notion Development Method is one that aims to teach not only the dictionary but also the multi-directional meanings of the words and to put them into practice. Through this method, the child actively participates in learning. 48 Associative Method: In this method the foreknowledge is used. A way from unknown to known by the student and from close environment to the distant one is followed. The effective use of this method depends on the environments, rich in personnel experiences. 44 1023 Çetin Çetinkaya, Olcay Özdemir The methods that you will prefer to use in improving vocabulary Number of choice 7 8 9 10 11 Word Grouping is based on the ability of categorization. It is more appropriate to study with technical words. It can be applied by placing the given words as grouped under the general headings and by placing the mixed given words under the general headings. 41 Direct Word Teaching is a method used for the students who cannot learn the words important for the text. It is a process based on teaching only the unknown words. It includes activities such as; writing the unknown words on the board, mental writing and writing in the notebook, spelling the word and doing activities based on audio and visual memory. 34 Grouping Method is similar to word grouping. The newly learned words are listed under the headings. Thus, the percentage of recalling the words increases. General headings, such as nouns, adjectives...etc. can be used. 32 Meaning Analysis is used for teaching the comparative apprehension of the features of different words or beings. It improves both the vocabulary and comprehension. The words to be classified or compared are placed in the scheme prepared with the students and the features of the words are defined with the accompany of the chart. The similar and different features are compared through the chart. This method is especially favorable for the students who experience difficulties in learning. Finger Method is a simple and effective method for especially the first grades. A word is matched with each finger. In this way recalling gets easy for the student. 30 8 The table was formed by making use of Akyol’s (2005) book: “Türkçe İlk Okuma Yazma Öğretimi” When the two tables above are studied, there is no sequence for the easiness of applicability in the primary school teacher candidate’s preferences aimed at improving vocabulary. Likewise, it cannot be mentioned about a sequence from the ones that necessitates preparations towards the methods that don’t. Also it is obvious that the case of education instruments was not taken into consideration in choosing the methods given above. Method of using dictionary, the most preferred one, necessitates at least one dictionary at each desk. There are lots of classroom conditions where this set-up cannot be provided. It means that teacher candidates did not bear in mind the case of education instruments in the preference of methods aimed at improving vocabulary. It is a known fact that the primary school teacher candidates apply the vocabulary improvement methods, while representing teacher, in the application steps of undergraduate 1024 The Opinions of Teacher Candidates about Developing Vocabulary courses such as Teaching First Reading and Writing and Teaching Turkish. For this reason, predisposition about the method may be a subject in preference reasons. Especially, intense use of the clues in the sentence and text, word mapping method and key words method are amongst the results of the observant. The size of the student groups is one of the variables disregarded in choosing methods. One of the variables that the teacher should pay attention in choosing the teaching method is the size of the student group to which the method will be applied. In the crowded classrooms it is difficult to apply the methods that necessitate the active participation of students, such as notion development. It is better to choose more applicable methods in such classrooms. That the teacher candidates disregard the size of the student groups can be explained as the state of insufficient experience of them. It is seen that in the preferences of the teacher candidates for improving vocabulary, the variables of predominance about the content of the method and predisposition to the method plays the important roles. References Akyol, H., (2005). Yeni Programa Uygun Türkçe İlk Okuma Yazma Öğretimi, Ankara, Pegem A Yayıncılık. Anderson, R.C., Freebody, P., (1985). Vocabulary Knowledge, In H. Singer & R.B. Ruddell (Eds), Theoritical Models Of Processes Of Reading (3rd. ed.) Newark, De, International Reading Association. Barr, R., Kamil, M.L., Mosenthal, P., Pearson, P.D., (1991). Handbook of Reading Research, Volume II., Newyork & London, Longman Publishing Group. Best, J.W., Kahn, J. V., (1989). Researhcing Education (6. Ed.) Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Çıplak, M., (2005). Determining the treasures written vocabularies of 5th, 8th and 11th grade primary school students in the center of the province of Uşak, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Durkin, D., (1989). Teaching Them To Read, (Fifth Edution), Allyn and Bacon. Karakuş, İ., (2000). Türkçe Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretimi (Öğretmen El Kitabı), Ankara, Sistem Ofset. Nagy, W., (1988). Teaching Vocabulary to Improve Reading Comprehension, Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Çetin Çetinkaya, Olcay Özdemir 1025 Perkins, M.R. (1982), Minimum Conpetency Testing: What? Why? Why not? Educational Measurement: Issues Practices, Winter. Temur, T., (2006). İlköğretim 5. ve 5. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Yazı Dilindeki Kelime Hazinelerinin Bazı Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi, Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Wren, S.A., (2000). An Examination of The Word Frequency Effect In Word Recognition: Controlling The Confound of Word Recency, University Of Texas at Austin. Yıldırım, A., Şimşek, H., (2005). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri, Ankara, Seçkin Yayıncılık. The Opinions of Class Teachers Regarding In-Service Training Ayşe Mentiş Taş, Zuhal Güven, Selcuk University – Turkey Abstract In this study, the opinions of class teachers about in-service training were aimed to investigate. The qualitative survey method was used to gather the data. 106 class teachers selected randomly from 15 primary schools in Meram, Karatay and Selcuklu districts took part in the study voluntarily. Two openended questions were asked to the teachers in this research; the first one was, “Are in-service training activities sufficient enough to meet your requirements in terms of your occupational development? If not, why” and the second was “On which subject or subjects do you need in-service training more? Why?” In the analysis of the data, along with frequency and percentage calculations, descriptive analyses were used. According to the research findings, 71% (n=76) of class teachers said “no” while 18% (n=18) of them said “yes” and 11% (n=12) of them said “partly” to the first question. The reasons that the participants gave for finding in-service training insufficient mainly were inadequacy of instructor who gave the education, only theoretical lectures totally lack of practice, insufficient time and unsatisfactory physical location, irrelevant in-service training areas, crowded classrooms, inappropriate lecture hours obliging the participants to attend according to a strict schedule. According to the answers for the second question, the class teachers described the first three subjects they mostly require as a new primary school program, application of teaching methods and techniques and class management. Key words: In-service training, occupational development, class teacher Introduction Nowadays, people go through a rapid alteration and development process in nearly all aspects of life. Therefore, they should constantly update their education and develop themselves in order to accommodate to this period, 1028 The Opinions of Class Teachers Regarding In-Service Training which is a necessity for their individual, occupational and social development. It is also necessary for teachers, who are the main component of the education system, to renew and develop themselves according to the necessities of the changing time. However, for teachers who are expected to bring up welleducated individuals for future, in-service training becomes insufficient to help them fulfill their changing roles, tasks and responsibilities. In view of all these points, it can be said that teachers should go on getting constant in-service training (Gültekin ve Çubukçu,2008), as it will help them gain a professional teacher identity. The most important distinction between the ones who are professional and the ones who are not is the interest of professionals in quality. Doing the work, and especially doing it well, may be regarded as sufficient by non-professionals but basic characteristic of professionals is to develop the way they do the work both for themselves and for the others (Glasser, 2000). What makes teachers gain their professional identity is the integration of pre-service and in-service periods (Saban, 2000). For this reason, it’s essential to give teachers opportunity for continuous innovation in order to reach the expected results in education. With that aim, in-service training programs should be organized and carried out in the direction of a scientific approach (Erisen, 1998). The main goal of in-service training is to inform teachers and directors about the changing and developing educational concept and help them gain the required information, skills and attitudes to be effective and efficient educators (Aytac, 2000). The benefits of in-service training activities from the teachers point of view can be summarized as follows; to encourage the professional development of teachers by increasing their scientific, educational and individual competence, to direct teachers towards occupational satisfaction, to develop the performance of the teachers, to develop the general and special targets of education, to improve the available educational sources, to develop new educational instruments, and to improve the educational atmosphere and its conditions (Silvester, 1997; Haris, 1989; Aktaran, Uçar and İpek, 2006). In-service training, though necessary for all professionals, has a significant importance for teachers. In-service training is regarded as one of the most important ways that give teachers necessary professional knowledge and skills through direct experience and informal interactions with the colleagues (Hamilton and Richardson, 1995; Marker, 1999; Wight and Buston, 2003; Aktaran, Gultekin and Cubukcu, 2008). As is seen, the necessity of in-service training for teachers and its contribution to their professional development is indisputable. On the other hand, it should be born in mind that in-service training is beneficial as long as it Ayşe Mentiş Taş, Zuhal Güven 1029 meets the needs of teachers effectively and efficiently. Regarding all the points mentioned above, the teachers’ opinions about whether in-service training activities meet their requirements and what subjects they demand to learn mostly during in-service training period was chosen as a topic for the study. Method The qualitative survey model was used in the research. Surveying is an approach that aims to define a past or present situation as it is (Karasar, 1991, 77). Working Group The working group of the research includes 106 class teachers who participated voluntarily from 15 primary schools that are selected randomly in Meram, Karatay and Selcuklu districts in Konya city center in the first semester of 2007-2008 educational year. 51% of the teachers who participated in this research have more than 10 years of work experience, and 49 % of them have less than 10. Collection of the Data In this research, the data was collected through a survey instrument with two open-ended questions was used. The following questions were asked to the participants: 1. Are in-service training activities sufficient enough to meet your requirements in terms of your occupational development? If not, why? 2. On which subject or subjects do you need more in-service training? Why? Analysis of the Data In the analysis of the data, frequency and percentage calculations as well as descriptive analysis were used. The reason why “Descriptive analysis”, a qualitative research technique, was used in the analysis of data in this study was that the opinions of class teachers were obtained as a written document. In descriptive analysis, the data obtained are summarized and interpreted according to the themes determined before. The data can be arranged according to the themes that are put forth by research questions and also can be presented by taking into consideration the questions and dimensions used during interview and observation periods. In descriptive analysis, direct quotations are allowed frequently in the aim of reflecting the opinions of interviewed or observed individuals in an impressive way. In such an analysis, the aim is to present the 1030 The Opinions of Class Teachers Regarding In-Service Training obtained data to the reader in an arranged and interpreted form (Yıldırım and Simsek, 2006, 224). In our study, numbers from 1 to 106 were given to the collected data of class teachers before analyzing the data. While presenting the opinions of teacher candidates, the number and the class teacher definitions were used in parenthesis in order to specify which class teacher it belongs to. Findings The findings of the research were discussed under two topics as; “The Opinions of Class Teachers about Whether In-service Training Activities Meet Their Requirements” and “The Opinions of Class Teachers About the Subjects They Require mostly in In-service Training”. The Opinions of Class Teachers About the Situation Whether In-service Training Activities Meet Their Requirements First of all, the question “Are in-service training activities sufficient enough to meet your requirements in terms of your occupational development? If not, why?” was asked to the teachers. 71% (n=76) of class teachers said no, 18% (n=18) of them said yes and 11% (n=12) of them said partly to this question. The reasons they gave for finding in-service training inadequate were mainly as follows; inadequacy of instructor who gives the education, just theoretically presented lectures without any practice, limited time and inadequate physical location, not opening in-service training in required areas, crowded classrooms, inappropriate lecture hours, and strict schedule which does not let the participants choose suitable days and hours themselves. The following descriptions can be given as some examples for their opinions: “Inadequate. The lecturers who give education in in-service training do not have adequate information background. I often witnessed that these appointed people did not have comprehensive knowledge about the subjects and they killed the time by chatting during the lecture periods. The participants of the seminar prefer taking a certificate instead of getting information” (Class Teacher-5). “Inadequate. In-service training is generally given theoretically and does not include any practice. Even if the rate of application differs according to the subjects, I came across with situations where there were no applications” (Class Teacher -11) “Inadequate. There occur noise and babble in crowded and airless class environment. The physical conditions of places where these courses are given are not suitable. The period is insufficient” (Class Teacher -48). “The subjects of in-service training are determined without consulting us and asking for our opinions. At the end of the course, it’s not important who has Ayşe Mentiş Taş, Zuhal Güven 1031 learnt what. Examinations are done perfunctorily. They make no use other than distributing the documents” (Class Teacher -32). “Inadequate. You cannot attend the courses you want. Moreover, we cannot concentrate on lessons as we are tired at the hours when the courses are performed in the evenings and after work” (Class Teacher -61). The Opinions of Class Teachers about the Subjects Which They Mostly Require During In-service Training As a second question “On which subject or subjects do you need in-service training more? Why?” was asked to the teachers. The class teachers described the first three subjects they mostly require as new primary school program, application of teaching methods and techniques, and class management. The following descriptions can be given as some examples for their opinions: “I need in-service training especially on Application of New Primary School Program, which has recently been applied. Since this program is full of activities, we can come across with the activities, education methods and techniques that we do not know” (Class Teacher- 53). “I mostly need in-service training on the renewed primary school program, as this program was put in practice without giving us adequate information and material. It’s expected from us to work a miracle with the guide books in our hands” (Class Teacher -106). “I’d like to take in-service training about new education methods and techniques. New educational methods come in sight with the changing world and if the teachers are aware of them, they will be more supportive towards their students” (Class Teacher -78). “Class management. The children are spoiled and aweless. Actually the families should also be educated” (Class Teacher -4). “In-service training lectures should be organized about the issues like class management and motivation” (Class teacher -83). Results and Discussion A good many of teachers (71%) who participated in this research specified that in-service training activities are inadequate in meeting their requirements in terms of occupational development. The reasons that the participants gave for finding in-service training insufficient mainly were inadequacy of instructor who gave the education, only theoretical lectures totally lack of practice, insufficient time and unsatisfactory physical location, irrelevant in-service training areas, crowded classrooms, inappropriate lecture hours obliging the participants to attend according to a strict schedule. In the studies of Baskan (2001), Gulmez (2004), Ozen (2004), Ucar and Ipek (2006), the teachers said that they did not find in-service training applications 1032 The Opinions of Class Teachers Regarding In-Service Training effective enough. In a study of Ozen (2004), the teachers attending in-service training courses expressed that the lecturers who are assigned in in-service training program should have competences such as having full knowledge about the subject, creating interest of participants in lessons, providing a suitable learning environment for educational activities, identifying the subjects with the real life situations, and using audio-visual lecture tools effectively. In another study by Özen (2005), it was reported that during in-service periods, practical applications of the knowledge, skills and behaviors should be given priority. In another study of Ozen (2005), on the other hand, the opinions were reported about the importance of the practical applications of the information, skills and attitudes obtained and learned throughout the programs during inservice training programs. Moreover, in the studies of Yalın (2001), Baskan (2001), Durmus (2003), Madden (2003), Gulmez (2004) and Ozen (2005), inadequacy of time and physical environment, crowded classrooms, not opening in-service training in required areas, not doing the needs analysis before in-service training were counted among the deficiencies of in-service education. Regarding all these, we can conclude that the lecturers who will give inservice training should be experts who have comprehensive knowledge about in-service training so that the program can achieve its goals and be effective and efficient. In addition to these, providing a good physical environment, arranging the time properly and doing needs analysis are also important necessities. The class teachers described the first three subjects they mostly require as new primary school program, application of teaching methods and techniques and class management. The reason for their demand may be that the new curriculum envisages many new methods and activities which seem quite different from the previous one. The opinions of teachers about the priority that should be given to the practical applications of theoretical knowledge they get during the in-service program may also be related with that reason. Suggestions 1. A needs analysis should be made before in-service training. 2. In-service training should be given by experts who have full knowledge about the subject. 3. In-service training should be given not only theoretically but also practically. 4. The places where in-service training is given should have good physical conditions and the time should be well arranged. 5. All teachers who want to attend this in-service training should be given an opportunity to do that. Ayşe Mentiş Taş, Zuhal Güven 1033 References Aytaç, T.,(2000).Hizmet içi eğitim kavramı ve uygulamada karşılaşılan sorunlar.Milli Eğitim,147,66-69. Baskan, H.,(2001).İlköğretim Okullarında Görevli Öğretmenlerin Hizmet İçi Eğitim Programlarının Etkililiğine İlişkin Algı ve Beklentileri (Denizli İli Örneği).Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi.Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.Denizli. Durmuş, E.,(2003).Sınıf Öğretmenlerine Yönelik Düzenlenen Hizmet İçi Eğitim Etkinliklerine İlişkin Öğretmen Görüşleri (Ankara İli Örneği).Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi.Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü.Ankara. Erişen, Y.,(1998).Öğretmenlere yönelik hizmet içi eğitim programları geliştirmede eğitim ihtiyacı belirleme süreci.Milli Eğitim,140,39-43. Glasser,W.,(2000).Kaliteli Eğitimde Öğretmen.İstanbul.Beyaz Yayınları. Gültekin, M.,Çubukçu, Z.,(2008).İlköğretim öğretmenlerinin hizmet içi eğitime ilişkin görüşleri.Manas Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi,sayı,19. Gülmez,S.,(2004).Sınıf Öğretmenlerine Uygulanan Hizmet İçi Eğitim Programlarının Etkililiğine İlişkin Öğretmen Görüşlerinin Belirlenmesi.Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi.Sakarya Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.Sakarya. Karasar, N.(1991). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi. Ankara. Sanem Matbaacılık. Madden, T.,(2003).Okul Yöneticileri ve Öğretmenler İçin Düzenlenen Hizmet İçi Eğitim Etkinliklerinin Değerlendirilmesi.Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi.Anadolu Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü.Eskişehir. Özen, R.,(2004).Hizmet İçi Eğitim Programlarında Görev Alan Öğretim Elemanlarının Yeterliklerine İlişkin Kursiyerlerin Görüşleri. XIII Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi. İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi. 6-9 Temmuz 2004.Malatya. Özen, R.,(2005).MEB Personelinin Hizmet İçi Eğitim Programlarında Kalitenin Artırılmasına İlişkin Görüşleri.XIV. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi.28-30 Eylül 2005.Denizli. Saban, A.,(2000).Hizmet içi eğitimde yeni yaklaşımlar.Milli Eğitim,145,25-30. 1034 The Opinions of Class Teachers Regarding In-Service Training Uçar, R.,İpek, C.,(2006).İlköğretim Okullarında Görev Yapan Yönetici Ve Öğretmenlerin MEB Hizmet İçi Eğitim Uygulamalarına İlişkin Görüşleri.Yüzüncü Yıl Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi,cilt:III,sayı:1,34-53. Yalın,H,İ.,(2001).Hizmet İçi Eğitim Programlarının Değerlendirilmesi.Milli Eğitim.sayı,150. Yıldırım, A., Şimşek, H.,(2006).Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri. Seçkin Yayıncılık. Ankara. The Perception of Professional Autonomy among Educators of Adults Kristinka Ovesni, University of Belgrade – Serbia Abstract The paper considers the perception of professional autonomy among teachers of adults. Theoretically, the paper is based on the presumption that professional autonomy is reflection of knowledge and that gaining this aspect of personal autonomy is an important andragogical goal. We made a basic division on external (by professional standards, by professional preparation and by continuing professional development driven) and on internal autonomy (individual perception of professional power on: work conditions and contents, performance, making decisions, etc). The main purpose of this paper is to explain theoretical ideas conceptualized as responding to the questions on perception of subsistence of professional autonomy, conduction of independence in work and perception of the importance of own professional influence as a reflection of professional autonomy. The data were collected in May 2005, from a sample of 337 respondents with a battery of instruments consisted of a questionnaire and different fivepoint Likert-type scales (20 items). Complex statistical analysis determined that perception of professional autonomy is based on the influence of reflection of professional knowledge, and on some elements of work, organizational and biosocial sphere. Key words: Teachers in adult education, professionalization, professional autonomy, independence, professional knowledge Autonomy: Some Theoretical Perspectives The term autonomy is linked to multiple meanings. It is ordinarily used to refer to an independence, political sovereignty, freedom and self-control in performance; also, when associate to professionalism, term assumes socially recognized functional specificity with technical, organizational and ethical 1036 The Perception of Professional Autonomy among Educators of Adults implications. In psychology, the term autonomy is used to refer to a relative freedom of influence of others in process of making decisions, reasoning, and believing; also, term autonomy is used to refer to a psychogenic need linked to a control over context and methods of performance, and to refer to a process of struggle for independence and resisting to a different influences. In andragogy, as Chene suggest, the term autonomy is usually associate with a specific form of freedom, with concepts like independence, self-responsibility and self-determination and "... refers to one's ability to choose what has value, that is to say, to make choices in harmony with self-realization" (Chene, 1983, pp. 39). Autonomy is a reflection of knowledge, linked to a self-directed learning as a specific form of personal attribute represented through independence, freedom from influences, freedom to critical thinking or to critical judging, articulation of norms and rules (Despotovic, 1997). Tightly connected with context, obtaining autonomy is a process, not a single act. As Mezirow (2000) explains, the phenomenon of autonomy is one of basic concepts of distinction between adults and children: adult are autonomous individuals, old enough to be responsible for his/her actions. The relevant studies considered professional autonomy was concentrated on (a) some aspects of the professional autonomy, (b) self-estimation of the level of achieved professional autonomy or (c) inter-relations of professional autonomy with some elements of context (Ovesni, 2007). Professional autonomy is a powerful incentive in professional orientation, especially in the fields of education, psychology and social work. The reflection of the stronger perception of the independence in work is a stronger perception of professional autonomy (Modarresi et al., 2001). Autonomy, representing the reflection of power (influence) and knowledge in context, is critical for occupations in obtaining status of the profession (Freidson, 1986; Wilson, 1999). Professional autonomy could be divided on external (by professional standards, by professional preparation and by continuing professional development driven) and on internal autonomy (individual perception of professional power on: work conditions and contents, performance, making decisions, etc). Methodology The basic research problem considered in this paper is the perception of professional autonomy among teachers of adults. Based on the abovementioned assumption we developed a few research objectives concentrated on the examination of perception of: subsistence of professional autonomy, conduction of independence in work, and of importance of own professional influence as a reflection of professional autonomy. Kristinka Ovesni 1037 For gathering data, a complex battery of instruments consisted of questionnaire and five-point Likert-type scales were used. Consensual content validity was established by Delphi method (a cohort of 7 adult education and methodology of pedagogical and andragogical research experts). Reliability of this study was ascertained by the calculated statistical coefficients of reliability, Item-Item analyses, Guttmann or Cronbach α coefficient. The Cronbach α coefficient for instrument consisted of 20 Likert-type scales was 0.706, suggesting high reliability of instruments and acceptability in social sciences researches (Fajgelj, 2003). The Microsoft Excel, SPSS 8.0 for Windows, and Statistica 5.0 for Windows were used for data analysis, while a few common procedures were run on the data: T-tests, Chi-Square test, Canonical correlation analysis and Exploratory principal component analysis. Research Findings and Discussion Theoretically, the most important suggestion of the research findings is about scope of the perception of own autonomy in the population of the teachers in adult education, about the perception of influence of position in organizational structure at own professional autonomy, about the perception of the importance of the own professional influence, and about the perception of demonstration of autonomy in formal organizational structure as a reflection of their professional autonomy. We learned that expression of some determinants of professional autonomy between the teachers in adult education differ than the perception of these determinants between the members of developed professions (law, medicine, etc.). The main research hypothesis - that more the formal gained professional knowledge teachers in adult education have, the more autonomy in their work they reflected is completely confirmed. Also, we gathered interesting information about connections between the perception of own autonomy in the population of the teachers in adult education and some bio-social, work and organizational determinants. A research findings suggests that the most of respondents claim that autonomy in their work is reflection of: complexity of their duties (88.3%), continuing critical reconciliation of practice (92.4%), confidence and selfdetermination at work (89.7%), priority of own judgment (89.0%) and that is proportional to the level of influence in making important decisions in organizations (83.3%). However, a research findings suggests that the most of respondents (79.4) perceive a frequency of autonomous professional acting and easiness in accomplishing duties (81.9%) as a dominant in obtaining a professional autonomy. A professional autonomy, as respondents perceived, is a reflection of own professional influence on clients/customers – adult learners/students (89.7%), at associates (84.6%), at own socially constructed context (85.8%) and a reflection of overall influence (88.3%). But, as a 1038 The Perception of Professional Autonomy among Educators of Adults aforementioned studies suggests, although a members of developed professions (law, medicine, etc.) perceive own professional influence on management and on the social settings of their clients as powerful, teachers in adult education estimate this aspect of own influence as a relative weak (over 76.0%). Interestingly, teachers in adult education perceive (more than 50% per item) that on all of the activities in their work (in: planning, choosing contents, identification and posing a objectives, selecting of tools and methods, overall activities, making decisions and in evaluation) dominate combination of team and independent work; on the contrary: the members of developed professions perceive domination of independency in their work activities. One-sample T-tests and Chi-Square test confirmed that the mean of the variables differs from a specified constant and that the estimations of teachers in adult education do not reflect equal proportions of their responses, i.e. that they perceived that autonomy in their work is reflection of complex, networked circumstances, with the strong impact of continuing critical reconciliation of practice and of a lack of the influence in making of important decisions in organizations. That findings imply importance of participation in widespread, andragogically well-formed programs for continuing professional education of the teachers in adult education, based on strengthening of their capacities for critical reflection and for making decisions. On the other hand, the same statistical procedures confirmed that the perception of frequency of autonomous professional acting and easiness in accomplishing duties is stronger than expected. Teachers in adult education perceive their own professional influence on different aspects of socially constructed context as powerful, but not consistent as a members of developed professions do. However, considering dominant criteria Schön (1983) put forward, teachers in adult education inclines to a status of developed profession. Especially, if they obtained any kind of the formal professional education in the field of andragogy/adult education the stronger is tendency of these inclinations to a status of developed profession (Ovesni, 2007). Regarding the perception of own autonomy in some aspects of work, canonical correlation analysis (Table 1) permitted extraction of the three structures significant on p<0.01 level: The first of them indicates that some bio-social determinants (parent’s education and occupational status) influence the continuing critical reconciliation of practice, as most notably studies claims (Ibid); The second canonical structures indicate that the past service and professional rank of respondents influenced perception of a level of influence in making important decisions in organizations; 1039 Kristinka Ovesni The third canonical structures indicate that the number of organizations of employment in respondents work history influence on perception of own autonomy. Table 1: Canonical correlation analysis: perception of own autonomy χ2˛(126)=290,98 Sig. =,0000 Canonical R: ,45275 No of variables Variance extracted Total redundancy. Coef. Canonical Cor. F Cancl R Cancl R2 0 0.453 0.205 1 0.374 0.140 2 0.361 0.130 3 0.253 0.064 4 0.248 0.062 5 0.198 0.039 N=337 Left Set 13 74,98% 7,00% Right Set 6 100,00% 11,71% F χ2 290.984 194.183 130.498 71.596 43.659 16.831 df 126 100 76 54.000 34.000 16.000 Sig. **0.000 **0.000 **0.000 0.055 0.124 0.397 λ’ 0.502 0.631 0.734 0.844 0.902 0.961 Exploratory principal component analysis allowed extraction of two principal components. First extracted component (Inner determinants of decisions in professional activities) explains 37.34% of common variance; this component is shaped by coordination with students needs and with perceived independence from experienced colleagues and other employees. The second extracted component (External determinants of decisions in professional activities) explains 19.08% of common variance; this principal component is shaped by perceived independence from management or any other external factor. Such findings imply perception of huge autonomy in decisions between teachers in adult education. Regarding perception of overall professional autonomy, the majority of respondents consider that complexity of performed job encompasses full autonomy (87.8%), but that perceived professional autonomy is influenced by marginalization of the field of adult education (82.6%). Besides, canonical correlation analysis of data gathered by scales for self-esteeming existence of the overall autonomy in own professional activities permitted extraction of the only one structure significant on p<0.01 level, which indicate synergy of the earnings and the job titles influences perception of autonomy in own professional activities (Ovesni, 2008). 1040 The Perception of Professional Autonomy among Educators of Adults Table 2: Canonical correlation analysis: perception of own professional influence χ2˛(126)=303,61 Sig. =,0000 Canonical R: ,52301 No of variables Variance extracted Total redundancy. Coef. Canonical Cor. F Cancl R Cancl R2 0 0.523 0.274 1 0.370 0.137 2 0.345 0.119 3 0.231 0.053 4 0.199 0.040 5 0.174 0.030 N=337 Right Set Left Set 13 70,89% 6,29% χ2 303.612 168.754 106.707 53.261 30.123 12.994 df 126.000 100.000 76.000 54.000 34.000 16.000 Sig. **0.000 **0.000 *0.012 0.503 0.658 0.673 6 100,00% 14,70% F λ’ 0.487 0.670 0.777 0.881 0.931 0.970 Canonical correlation analysis (Table 2) statistically significantly indicates the perception of own professional influence permitted extraction of the two structures significant on p<0.01 level and one canonical structure significant on p<0.05 level: The first one indicates that some bio-social and work determinants (father’s occupational status and organization of employment) have a statistically significant impact on the perception of own professional influence at own socially constructed context; The second canonical structures indicate that the past service have a statistically significant impact on the perception of own overall professional influence; The third canonical structures indicate that the gender and mother’s educational status have a statistically significant impact on the perception of own professional influence at the social context of their clients/customers. Also, canonical correlation analysis (Table 3) for the perception of dominant kind of work indicates the statistically accepted extraction of the two canonical structures significant on p<0.01 level and one canonical structure significant on p<0.05 level: The first one indicates that some bio-social and work determinants (father’s educational status and past service) have a statistically significant impact on the perception of dominancy of independent, fully autonomous work in activities such as choosing contents own professional influence at own socially constructed context and making decisions; 1041 Kristinka Ovesni The second canonical structures indicate that the age have a statistically significant impact on the perception of dominancy of autonomous work in activities such as planning and identification and posing a work objectives; The third canonical structures indicate that the mother’s occupational and educational status have a statistically significant impact on the perception of dominancy of independent work in overall activities and in evaluation. Table 3: Canonical correlation analysis: perception of own professional influence χ2˛(126)=314,65 Sig. =,0000 Canonicl R: ,42237 No of variables Variance extracted Total redundancy. Coef. Canonicl Cor. F Cancl R Cancl R2 0 0.422 0.178 1 0.416 0.173 2 0.330 0.109 3 0.304 0.092 4 0.234 0.055 5 0.203 0.041 6 0.168 0.028 7 0.146 0.021 Left Set 79,89% 5,64% χ2 314.648 231.924 151.954 103.396 62.565 38.880 21.083 9.012 df 168.000 140.000 114.000 90.000 68.000 48.000 30.000 14.000 N=337 Right Set 13 6 100,00% 18,27% F Sig. λ’ 0.474 **0.000 0.576 **0.000 0.697 *0.010 0.159 0.782 0.663 0.862 0.823 0.912 0.885 0.951 0.830 0.979 But, what makes our research findings considering the question of the professional autonomy of the teachers of adults is a result of complex, tightly networked determinants, with the most dominant influence of the professional knowledge. Conclusion Perceived autonomy in making decisions, and accordingly, objectivity regarding Schön's criteria of professionalization indicates that teaching adults makes huge progress in process of professionalization, but that this dimension is more openly expressed between adequate professionally prepared ones (Schön, 1983). Besides, as relevant one could emphasize political dimension of perceiving autonomy: teaching adults is not a privileged profession due the marginalized status of clients (students). From that position, interestingly, and statically significant is a notion of gender influence of teachers in adult education perception of autonomy, but we consider it as a reflection of culture, context and formal education (Ovesni, 2007). 1042 The Perception of Professional Autonomy among Educators of Adults At the other hand, standing centralization in planning and managing work activities of teachers in adult education, as a relict of earlier practice (Case et al., 1986; Darling-Hammond, 1987) directs not only the perception of a lack of professional autonomy, but leads to a releasing it. Also, the teachers in adult education express lack of professional autonomy regarding members of developed professions as a result of professional incompetence, directly connected with the professional education obtained at universities or professional schools and with the deficiencies in coverage with the programs for continuing professional education. References Case, C.W., Lanier, J.E. & Miskel, C.G. (1986). The Holmes Group report: Impetus for gaining professional status for teachers, Journal of Teacher Education, 37 (4), 36-43. Chene, A. (1983). The concept of autonomy in adult education: A philosophical discussion. Adult Education Quarterly, 1, 38-47. Darling-Hammond, L. (1987), Schools for tomorrow's teachers, Teachers College Record, 88. Despotovic, M. (1997). Znanje i kriticko misljenje u odraslom dobu, Belgrade: Institute for pedagogy and andragogy, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade. Fajgelj, S. (2003). Psihometrija, Metod i teorija psiholoskog merenja, Belgrade: Centar za primenjenu psihologiju. Freidson, E. (1986), Professional Powers - A Study of the Institutionalization of Formal Knowledge, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to Think Like an Adult: Core Concepts of Transformation Theory. In J. Mezirow & Associates (Eds.), Learning as Transformation (pp. 3-34), San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Modarresi, Sh. et al. (2001). Academic evaluators versus practitioners: alternative experiences of professionalism, Evaluation and Program Planning, 24, 1-11. Ovesni, K. (2007). Professionalization of the field of adult education (Defended doctoral dissertation, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade). Ovesni, K. (2008), Teaching Adults - A Proffession In Its Infancy, in Proceedings from International Conference Edu-World 2008: “Education Kristinka Ovesni 1043 Facing Contemporary World Issues”, Pitesti, Romania, University of Pitesti, in press. Schön, D.A. (1983), The Reflective Practitioner, How Professionals Think in Action, New York: Basic Books. Wilson, A.L. (1999), Creating identities of dependency: adult education as a knowledge-power regime, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 18(2), 85-93. The Problems in Practice Experienced By Teachers Graduating From Different Fields: Case of Düzce Şenay Sezgin Nartgün, Abant İzzet Baysal University – Turkey Serpil Kefeli, Ministry of National Education – Turkey Abstract Today in Turkey, just as in many fields, in order to meet the needs of the classroom teaching field, graduates from different faculties and departments have been given teacher training and appointed as classroom teachers. Up to now, researchers have concentrated on the problems brought about by this system. The aim of this study is to determine the opinions of the teachers graduating from different fields towards the problems they experience in practice. In this study, for the analysis of the qualitative data collected through semistructured interview forms, content analysis technique was used by the researchers. During the study, the qualitative data were collected through interview forms developed by the researchers in the spring semester of 20062007 academic years. The population of the study was 26 classroom teachers graduating from different faculties and departments currently teaching in province of Düzce. Key words: Graduating from different fields, teachers training Introduction A teacher, the most important element of education within the whole system, is an intellectual person who has the necessary and efficient knowledge in his field, who is equipped with the knowledge and skills of teaching profession, thinking, inquiring, open to innovations and development, continuously improving, and who has the responsibility and characteristics required by the profession (Akpınar, Ünal and Ergin, 2005). The fact that primary education period involves the most sensitive period of the physical, mental, emotional and social development of students and primary school teaching is a classroom 1046 The Problems in Practice Experienced By Teachers Graduating From Different Fields teaching covering all courses in primary education as different from subject teaching can be considered the most important reasons which increase the importance of primary school and classroom teaching. As classroom teaching is a profession including too much responsibility and expectation, a classroom teacher is supposed to know and guide students, and teach the necessary knowledge and skills. To achieve all these, a classroom teacher needs fine pedagogic formation knowledge as well as the sufficient professional knowledge. It was observed that the number of graduates from department of classroom teaching, which has an important place in the system, sometimes failed to meet the existing need (Şahin, 2007). To overcome this problem, graduates from different fields (faculty of administrative sciences, faculty of arts and science and different departments of faculty of education and etc.) were assigned as classroom teachers after given a short-term pedagogic formation or sometimes without such training. The fact that the ones assigned as classroom teachers, which requires knowledge and many skills, experienced many problems such as graduation from different fields and professional problems. The Aim of the Study In this respect, the aim of this study is to determine the opinions of the teachers graduating from different fields towards the problems they experience in practice. The following questions, given below, will be answered by the subjects of the study. 1. Why did you prefer to be a teacher? 2. Do you face unpleasant situations in your profession? 3. Do you feel yourself different from graduates of education faculty in terms of your profession? 4. Do you think graduates of education faculty consider you from a different perspective in terms of your profession? 5. Do your colleagues/friends in your institution help you? 6. Dou you feel outcast in your profession? Method 26 classroom teachers graduating from different faculties and departments and currently teaching in the province of Düzce formed the study group. During the study, the qualitative data were collected through interview forms developed by the researchers in the spring semester of 2006-2007 academic year. In this study, for the analysis of the qualitative data collected through semi-structured interview forms, content analysis technique was used by the researchers. To analyze the data collected, the content-analysis and continuous comparison techniques were used. The basic procedure in content analysis, as Yıldırım and Şenay Sezgin Nartgün, Serpil Kefeli 1047 Şimşek (2003) pointed out, is gathering data which are similar to each other within the framework of certain concepts and categories, organizing these data in order to provide the understanding of the readers and interpret these. For the reliability and validity of the study, triangulation method was used. During the preparation of the interview forms, the literature in relation to the subject area was reviewed and the criticisms, the recommendations of subject specialists (n=6) were taken into account. The interview forms, at first, were given to the teacher graduating from different faculties and departments (n=4) and the interview forms were compared to the literature in order to examine whether it met the literature or not. Afterwards, the interviews were held with teacher graduating from different faculties and departments; and the data were, again, compared to the literature. Findings of the Study This section includes the findings obtained from the research. Personal information about the subjects of the research is given in Table 1. In Table 1, it is seen that 7 teachers graduated from different departments of education faculty, 5 graduated from faculty of economic and administrative sciences, 5 graduated from faculty of arts and science, 3 graduated from faculty of technical education, 2 graduated from faculty of engineering and architecture, 2 from faculty of letters, 1 from faculty of educational sciences and 1 from faculty of agriculture. It is also observed that 9 of the subjects were female while 17 were male and their start date of teaching is between 1994 and 2002. The answers of the subjects to the semi-structured questions are given below. 1- Why did you prefer to be a teacher? Most of the subjects state that they preferred teaching as a profession because they love the profession (E, F, İ, L, O, Ö, P, R, S, Ş, T, Ü). Graduates from faculty of arts and science state that they preferred this profession because there was no cadre opened in their own fields when they started their profession as a classroom teacher and graduates trained under pedagogic formation were given the right to work as a classroom teacher (G, N). Limited areas of employment related to the fields of their subjects and difficulties in finding a job (A, B, Ğ, D, M) affected their preferences. Some of the subjects stated that they started teaching to be able to work in the public sector (H, I, K). One of the participants, Ç, pointing out the economic situation of the country, says: “I started to work as a teacher to have a right by starting teaching and then to give up because of the economic fluctuations in Turkey and fear of being unemployed. Then I decided to continue because I started to enjoy teaching.” while the subject J says: 1048 The Problems in Practice Experienced By Teachers Graduating From Different Fields “I had no luxury to refuse a profession which offers state guarantee in a country where finding a job is very difficult… I was in a big quandary because I was educated in a very different field…They wanted to me find a job and feel proud of me.” and supports the opinions of C and Ç. 2- Do you face unpleasant situations in your profession? Some of the participants state that they do not face unpleasant situations in their professions (A, D, E, G, Ğ, Ö, R, T, Ü) while they also state that there might be some unpleasant situations just like in all professions. Some of the unpleasant situations they stated are as follows: insufficiency of educational opportunities in their institutions, adaptation problems of teachers as a result of financial dissatisfaction, moments with less share and frequent rotation, and thus decrease in continuity, big number of students in a classroom, disinterest of parents, and disturbances resulting from working in a different field. The subject B says: “It is a profession a classroom teacher, especially with a high responsibility feeling, is over worn out mentally and spiritually. I am disturbed by the fact that people consider it the same with the regular working and even underestimate this profession. Mind is very important for professional efficiency and I believe that I am not rewarded economically form my education and efforts. While the subject J says: “…the costs of mistakes you make in other professions are not big as those in teaching. Engineers, doctors and etc. may harm people with their mistakes. But it depends on their teachers who train them. Unfortunately, there are some people who consider teaching a resource of money and think “I teach the lesson and leave”. 3- Do you feel yourself different from graduates of education faculty in terms of your profession? Some of the participants state that they felt different and insufficient during the first years of their profession (A, C, Ç, H, I, J, M, R, P, U) but then they overcame this problem in time thanks to their efforts and work and they do not have such problem now. The subject J states that they see it as an advantage and by saying “we always need some concern and anxiety to improve ourselves and move a step forward from the point we stand”. They also state that their difference from the teachers graduating from different fields and employed as classroom teachers are related to courses such as music, painting, and physical education (B, I, L, P, T) but considering their own fields, it is an advantage that they have more knowledge about psychology, philosophy and sociology (Ğ). They state that they are insufficient in preparing teaching materials and they Şenay Sezgin Nartgün, Serpil Kefeli 1049 have to use ready materials, which impairs preparing an amusing learning atmosphere for students. This is generally observed in the first grade classes. For this reason, they do not find appropriate that the ones who graduated from different fields and do not have classroom teaching education teach to the first grade students and believe that assigning teachers graduating from different fields in the intermediate classes would be more effective (B). Other participants state that they do not feel themselves different, and university and professional life are different (K) and a person making efforts will perform any profession (İ). Furthermore, the participants D, O, Ö, and Ş stated that they did not feel themselves different from the graduates from department of classroom teaching because they already graduated from the faculty of education. 4- Do you think graduates of education faculty consider you from a different perspective in terms of your profession? The participants mostly answered this question as “no” (D, E, K, O, Ö, R, S, Ş, T, U, Ü). Some participants state that they were perceived differently and considered insufficient by the others during their first years of teaching (A, B, C, Ç, F, M). On the other hand, some of the participants do not consider themselves different (G, Ğ,I, L, N). J states that no one realizes that he graduated from a different faculty until he tells and expresses what he experienced as follows: “That is why, they sometimes prate that engineer, veterinarians and economists become teachers… I think we give a touch, a different point of view and different richness to schools. Besides, most of us usually say that there are differences between theoretical knowledge and practice, don’t we? If you are open to renovations, have the concern to achieve the perfect and search your heart, you will overcome any obstacle and your prejudiced colleagues, if any, may have to stop and rethink about you.” İ and K stated that this difference was not their problem and they were offered this opportunity. 5- Do your colleagues/friends in your institution help you? Some of the participants state that they received help from their colleagues during the first years but they do not need anymore (Ç, M). Also, M states how solidarity became rare by saying “today, competition is important.” Most of the participants state that everybody helps each other when necessary (A, C, D, E, G, Ğ, İ, K, L, N, O, Ö, P, R, S, Ş, U, Ü) and also emphasize that it is not because they are from a different field but everybody may need help. They emphasize that, in fact, they help their friends more (B, F, H, I, J, T). T states 1050 The Problems in Practice Experienced By Teachers Graduating From Different Fields that the one who helps him the most is “his wife who graduated from the department of classroom teaching”. 6- Dou you feel outcast in your profession? Some of the participants stated that they do not feel outcast in their professions and they do not feel regret (A, C, D, E, F, G, Ğ, H, I, İ, J, K, L, Ö, P, R, S, Ş, T, U, Ü). M considers himself insufficient not outcast and explains his disturbances by saying: “There are some times I feel regretful when principals become inaccessible and act far from a manager’s manner and sometimes because of the cruel critics of primary education inspectors.” The participants state that classroom teaching is a field which is fruitful only when you continuously make efforts and show determination (A) and they try to do their best (C, Ç, O, U). Yet, they believe that they will be more fruitful if they do their own jobs (C, I, O) and state that they feel regretful when they experience economic difficulties (I). Ç and H state that they sometimes, especially in the first years, felt outcast. Ğ says “I consider graduates from classroom teaching full classroom teachers, graduates from faculty of education half classroom teacher (myself) and graduates from faculty of arts and science quarter teacher.” Conclusion, Discussion and Suggestions When the education policy, planning and practices from 1980 to today in Turkey are examined, it is observed that lack of confidence in planning has become more (Eğitim ve İnsangücü Özel İhtisas Komisyonu, 1995). Failure in achieving the objectives, inability to employ bachelor and master degree graduates from various faculties in their own fields and failure in creating areas of employment can be considered the reasons for decrease in confidence in planning. A majority of the participants stated that they preferred the profession of teaching because they loved the profession and their preference was affected by the fact that there was no cadre opened for graduates from faculty of arts and science when they started their profession as a classroom teacher and the ones trained under pedagogic formation program were give the right to work as a classroom teacher, the employment areas related to their original fields were limited and there were difficulties in finding a job. Some of the participants stated that they started teaching in order to work in the public sector. Insufficiency of educational opportunities in their schools, adaptation problems of teachers as a result of financial dissatisfaction, big number of students in a classroom, disinterest of parents, and disturbances resulting from working in a different field were reported as unpleasant situations in their Şenay Sezgin Nartgün, Serpil Kefeli 1051 professions. Azar and Henden (2003) state in their study that wage and working conditions affect work satisfaction of teachers graduating from different fields. Some of the participants state that they felt different and insufficient during the first years of their profession but then they overcame this problem in time thanks to their efforts and work and they do not have such problem now. It is stated in a study by Baskan (2001) that the ones who graduated from different fields and assigned as classroom teachers experience lack of knowledge during the first years of their professional life. In the study by Akpınar, Ünal and Ergin (2005), it is stated that science teachers who graduated from different fields are insufficient. Some subjects emphasized that they were perceived differently when they first started to work while a majority of the subjects stated that they were not. In the study by Akpınar, Ünal and Ergin (2005), it is also stated that science teachers who graduated from different fields considered themselves inefficient during the first years of profession. Some of the subjects state that they received help from their colleagues in the first years but they do not need anymore. Besides, competition in the profession results in decrease in solidarity. Some of the subjects state that they do not feel outcast in their profession and they do not feel regretful but they believe they will be more efficient if they worked in their own fields and they feel regretful when they experience economic difficulties. Çelik (1998), Çetin and Çetin (2000) and Oral (2000) state in their studies that teachers, who start profession in such a way, have a tendency to quit the job when they find a more suitable one for themselves. In line with these results, it seems that moving the teachers, who graduated from different fields, to their own fields of employment will be the most appropriate course of action. References Akpınar, E., Ünal, G. & Ergin, Ö. (2005). Farklı alanlardan mezun fen bilgisi öğretmenlerinin fen öğretimine yönelik tutumları. Milli Eğitim Dergisi. 33 (168). http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/168/orta3-akpinar.htm. 10 nisan 2008. Azar, A. & Henden, R. (2003). Alan dışından atanmanın iş doyumuna etkileri: sınıf öğretmenliği örneği. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri. 3(2), 323-349. Baskan, A. G. (2001). Öğretmenlik mesleği ve öğretmen yetiştirmede yeniden yapılandırma. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 20, 1625. 1052 The Problems in Practice Experienced By Teachers Graduating From Different Fields http://www.cev.org.tr/Default.aspx?pageID=18&nID=767 , 10 nisan 2008 Çelik, V. (1998). Alan dışından gelen sınıf öğretmenlerin örgütsel sosyalizasyonu. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi Dergisi, 4(14), 191-208. Çetin, F & Çetin, Ş. (2000). İlköğretim okullarına sınıf öğretmeni olarak atanan branş öğretmenlerinin meslekle ilgli sorunları. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 145, 58-62. Eğitim ve İnsangücü Özel İhtisas Komisyonu (1995). İnsangücü alt komisyon raporu. Ankara: T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı Müsteşarlığı, Yayın no: Dpt:2399-ÖİK:460. Oral, B. (2000). Alan dışından mezun olup sınıf öğretmenliğine atanan öğretmenlerin sınıf öğretmenliğindeki durumlarının değerlendirilmesi. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 148. http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/148/9.htm. 10 nisan 2008 Şahin, Z. (2007). Eğitimde sorunlar aşılamadı. Cumhuriyet. 17 Eylül 2007. Yıldırım, A. ve Şimşek, H. (2003). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. 3. Baskı. Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık. Toward Their Professional Development: Do the Prospective Teachers Benefit from Academic and Social Facilities? A METU Case Tuba Fidan, Ercan Kiraz, Middle East Technical University – Turkey Abstract The purpose of this study is to explore teacher candidates’ participation in social and academic facilities (SF-AF) provided by their university, Middle East Technical University (METU). To achieve this purpose, a questionnaire was developed and administered to 212 students from METU Faculty of Education (FE). The results of the study showed that although the students believe in the importance of participating to the SF and AF to be better teacher, they do not attend these facilities as expected. Key words: Social and academic activities/facilities, teacher education, effective teacher characteristics. Introduction Who are Effective Teachers? Nowadays, rapid development in science and technology, changes in social relations, and globalization of the world force educators to redefine the role of teachers. “Who are Effective Teachers?” is the question for every educator, and there is no magic stick that helps to distinguish the best teachers from the worst. Nonetheless, as Ornstein (1976) states that, there are common attributing characterize effective teachers and their intellectual abilities, essential competencies, and teaching skills, which can be framed. In this frame, Ausubel and Robinson (1969), proposes good teachers’ characteristics as having a high cognitive capacity and strong content knowledge, a necessary teaching skills and intended personality characteristics, and being academically prepared (Güçlü, 1996). However, it should be noted that academic achievement is not the sole determinant in someone’s ability in teaching. Even though academic dimension about characteristics of good 1054 Toward Their Professional Development: Do the Prospective Teachers teachers are discussed frequently, variety of social and psychological attributes, such as maturity, development of social and personal values, and moral commitment should be also considered as inseparable elements of a good teacher (Ornstein, 1976). Social Role of the Teacher: In fact, teachers have the responsibility of preparing their students for their social role besides many other responsibilities. It should be kept in mind that today’s students are future’s doctors, engineers, lawyers, architectures, teachers etc. Therefore, it is highly essential for teachers to be prepared and meet the needs of the students with different interests, abilities, and expectations, and the role of the teachers, who are charged with enabling learners to reach the highest standards of accomplishment (DarlingHammond & Baratz-Snowden, 2005). Since teacher is the person who not only transfers the content knowledge through the right pedagogical activities but also is a role-model for students which is composed of honesty and equity, warmth and sense of humor, strong communication skills, enthusiasm, decision making and problem solving skills, self-respect, adaptable, encouraging and supportive, high expectations for success, creativity and modernism, self-confidence, leadership skills, and professional identity (Cruickshank et. al, 1995). Reflections to Teacher Education: According to Medley (1986), increasing the teacher effectiveness is a major goal of education. However, how is it possible to develop all or some of these elements above with existing content knowledge and pedagogy courses provided by Education Faculties? At this point, social dimension or impact of campus life in educating prospective teachers should be taken into consideration as an important element of teacher professionalism. As Erdoğan et al (2008) point out that to foster the productivity of education and to make prospective teachers achieve expected learning outcomes, designing proper learning environment and introducing social services and facilities are as much important as educational and instructional activities supplied by the university. Obstacles affecting participation to AF and SF of prospective teachers: Although there are limited number of research about the obstacles decreasing the ratio of prospective teachers’ participation to extracurricular activities in Turkey, Önder (2003) documents that the obstacles preventing undergraduate students’ engagement to activities are mostly financial matters, the limited number of activities which take students’ attention, the lack of equipments and building, family and society concerns, and students’ having insufficient information related to which activities universities serve and how students attend them. Extracurricular Facilities at METU: METU is an exemplary case of social and academic professional development in Turkey. It is one of Turkey's most competitive universities, with its 75 student societies, 11 sports groups and 34 Tuba Fidan, Ercan Kiraz 1055 teams at and all throughout the 2006-2007 academic year. The student societies successfully organized various cultural, sports and arts events which amount to the number of 1098. Moreover, a wide variety of sports facilities, including gymnasiums, tennis courts, basketball and football fields, jogging trails, olympic-size swimming pools are available on campus. Examining the related literature and the METU’s facilities, it is seen that certain importance is given to SF and AF. Despite this importance, limited number of studies related with the importance of extracurricular activities exists on teacher education. This need emerged from the literature directed researchers to carry out this study. The main purpose of this study is to explore the degree of FE students’ participation in SF and AF served by METU. To reach this aim, three research questions were formulated; 1. What are prospective teachers’ beliefs with respect to professional development and participating in social and academic activities? 2. To what extend do the prospective teachers participate the social and academic facilities served by METU? 3. What are the some obstacles that affect prospective teachers’ intention to participate social and academic activities? Method The survey design was used to describe the existing conditions. Study included 212 students from six different departments–Computer Education and Instructional Technologies, Early Childhood, Elementary Science, Elementary Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry Education, and Foreign Language Education. A survey questionnaire specifically developed for this study included three parts as demographics, obstacles, and beliefs. Pilot study was conducted to check the internal consistency and reliability of the instrument. The Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient was .87, .79 and .93 relatively for those parts. In order to describe the findings data were analyzed through SPPS 15.0 statistical program and interpreted by means, standard deviations, frequencies, and percentages. Results Prospective Teachers’ Beliefs with respect to Professional Development and Participating in SF and AF: According to the findings, 85.7% of the students thought that only taking the courses is not enough to be a qualified teacher; and 87.3% of the participants stated that they need to attend AF and 85.8% of them pointed out that they need to attend SF. Furthermore, 80.7% of the students responded that they have self esteem enough to be able to participate in the AF, and 85.8% of them have self esteem enough to be able to participate in the SF. 1056 Toward Their Professional Development: Do the Prospective Teachers while 88.2% of the students believed in the improvement of attending AF, 86.8% of them reflected the improvement of SF for their self-development. Moreover, the prospective teachers indicated that they can develop communication skills (100%), critical thinking skills (99.5%), team spirit (98.6%), leadership skills (97.1%), and state of belonging to their society and professionalism (95.8%), foster ethical concerns (88.8%), increase willingness to being a social participant (100%), self confidence (98.6%), creativity (95.8%), self-respect (95.3%), and sensitivity toward society and world problems (94.3%), be more credible and tolerable (93.0%), enhance decision making skills (98.6%), productivity (97.6%), and problem solving skills (92.9%), improve adaptation skills towards new and unexpected situations (97.7%), and sense of humor and warmth (91.0%), and acquire a strong general knowledge (94.3%) by the help of the SF and AF which prospective teachers attend besides their courses offered by the FE. The Degree of Prospective Teachers Participating in the SF and AF Served by METU: Regarding SF; Prospective teachers were asked whether they think that they participate SF and AF enough or not; results showed that 56.1% of the students did not think that their participation of SF was enough, and 72.2% of them did not consider their participation to AF was sufficient. 30 main SF were asked to students whether they attend them or not. According to the results, 4.7% of the students did not involve in any SF throughout their undergraduate education. Furthermore, 18.4% of the students attended 3 or less than 3 SF, 29.3% of the teacher candidates participated SF between 4 and 6, 19.8% of them participated activities between 7 and 9, 15.6% of the students involved in SF between 10 and 12, 8.9% of them attended 13 through 15 SF, 2.8% of the prospective teachers involved in SF between 16 and 18. Finally, only one of the teacher candidates attended 19 SF throughout his/her undergraduate years at METU. The most popular SF which students participated were spring festival (86.32%), concerts (67.92%) and weekly METU cinema (60.37%). Moreover, among 74 students clubs, 13 sports groups and 34 teams, 40.56% of the students took part as a member of those clubs or teams, and 59.43% of them did not participate any of the clubs or societies. 15.09% of the students participated Community Service Clubs, 8.49% of them involved in Children Mind Club, 4.24% of the members attended Turkish Folklore Club, 3.77% of them took part in Young Entrepreneurs Club, and 2.35% of them participated Education Club. Finally, the prospective teachers were asked about the social clubs, student societies, teams’ activities they attended without being a member of them; the results showed that 49.05% of the students were followed the activities of the clubs or societies and 50.94% of them were not following any of them. Moreover, Turkish Folklore Club’s activities (16.50%) were the most preferred Tuba Fidan, Ercan Kiraz 1057 one among all 86 clubs, and Turkish-Japanese Communication Club’s activities (4.71%) were the second preferred activities among students. In relation to AF; 27 main AF were asked to students. The results showed that, 17.9% of the students did not attend any AF throughout university years. In addition, 30.2% of them attended 1 or less than 2 AF, 30.7% of the prospective teachers took part in the AF between 3 or 4, 24.6% of them participated AF between 5 or 6, 3.8% of the students involved in AF between 7 or 8, 1.9% of teacher candidates attended 9 activities and .9% of the prospective teachers participated 11 AF during their undergraduate years. Furthermore, the most popular AF which students attended were Career days (56.60%), Science and Technology Museum (35.37%) and elective courses given from modern languages departments (34.43%). Obstacles That Affect Prospective Teachers’ Intention to Participate Social and Academic Activities: Regarding SF; according to the results, 87.3% of the participants pointed out that the foremost obstacle affecting students’ participation to SF is time limitation, and 84.4% of them stated that work load is the second important factor. 64.1% of the teacher candidates thought that the location of the faculty building is another serious obstacle. Moreover, 10 students responded to open-ended question related to other obstacles affecting their participation to SF. 3 of 10 prospective teachers stated that the compulsory attendance to courses offered by FE were the main obstacle, 2 of them stressed on their participation to other activities out of the university, so they had no extra time for the activities served by university, 2 students pointed out that living off campus was another important obstacle, and finally 2 of them mentioned that the schedules of the activities were another pressure for students who want to attend the activities. In relation to AF; As in SF, 82.6% of the participants pointed out that the foremost obstacle affecting students’ participation to AF is time limitation. Similarly, 81.6% of the students stated that work load of the METU FE is the second important factor, 53.4% of them pointed out that the location of the faculty building is another serious obstacle, and 52.8% of the students stated that there is inadequate number of activities they are interested in that affects their participation to AF negatively. Furthermore, 5 students responded to openended question; 3 prospective teachers mentioned that the announcements were not well organized enough to reach all students, and 2 students mentioned that they did not like their department and want to attend any academic activity related to their department or their study area. 1058 Toward Their Professional Development: Do the Prospective Teachers Discussion Based on the findings related with students’ participating social and academic facilities served by a highly qualified university, discussion was presented under three headings, which are beliefs, the degree level of participation and obstacles. In relation to beliefs; as also suggested by Ornstein (1976) and Cruickshank et. al (1995), most of the students thought that the courses alone are not sufficient to be a well-equipped teacher. In addition, they implied that participating in extracurricular activities is not only essential to develop their personal development but also it is important to develop effective teacher characteristics mentioned before. Therefore, they stated that they need to join in SF and AF served by METU. Regarding the degree level of participation; although, more than half of the prospective teachers state that their participation SF and AF was not enough for their personal and professional development, the results showed that their participation was not as high as it should be. At most 19 SF and 11 AF were attended by 1 student which is very low number for such a facilitated university. As previous research at METU (2008) showed, the most popular SF among students was traditional International Spring Festival. Although most of the people face with difficulty in entering the campus for festival, remarkable amount of education faculty students do not attend the spring festival. Similarly, there is a cinema hall at METU campus, and the films are renewed weekly with half of the price of public cinemas. Nonetheless, the rate of attending cinema activities was also low. In addition, the most popular academic activity was the Career Days among the students. However, only the half of the students involved in career days, despite the fact that career days are essential for getting help in deciding about their future. Similarly, the number of students who visited the museum which is the second popular AF was too low. Furthermore, even though they thought that they have self-esteem enough to involve in activities, more than half of the students were not a member of a student club or society. Among these students, the most popular student societies were Community Service, Children Mind, Turkish Folklore, Young Entrepreneurs and Education clubs. It is known that community field experiences can provide opportunities to prospective teachers to develop greater intercultural and communicative teaching competence which are essential parts of teacher education (Zeichner et al., 1998). Despite the importance, the degree of participation to community service clubs was too low. Similarly, the engagement rate of education faculty clubs such as Education and Children Mind clubs were too low for FE students. Moreover, the third popular club was Young Entrepreneurs which was interesting for FE students. In addition, only Tuba Fidan, Ercan Kiraz 1059 Turkish Folklore club had high popularity among other 86 student clubs and societies in which activities were followed by FE students. In relation with obstacles; Önder (2003) documented that the obstacles preventing undergraduate students’ engagement to activities were mostly financial matters, the limited number of activities, the lack of equipment and building, and family and society concerns. However, the situation is different at METU; the prospective teachers proposed that the most serious obstacles preventing their participation in activities are time limitation, work load and the location of the faculty building. METU is known as one of the most challenging universities among other universities in Turkey, and students are exposed to severe stress level because of the work load and time limitations. For that reason, the number of guidance and counseling services and conferences related to academic career, time management, coping with stress served by METU career planning and health and psychological counseling centers should be improved to help the students with heavy work load, having difficulty with time management and so on. Another factor affecting involvement of the students to SF is the location of the faculty building. The FE is far from the center of the METU campus and so conference holes, sport center and fields, clubs and societies’ buildings, culture and convention center. Regarding this, while the schedules of the activities are organized, their place and the other distant faculties should be considered seriously by coordinators. Moreover, living off campus and schedules of activities are other reasons which cause participating less number of activities in the campus. More flexible activity schedule should be created by considering schedule of buses and minibuses. Furthermore, there are not transportation services for some districts near METU campus where many students live. The municipality of Ankara should consider this and try to find a solution. Furthermore, students stated that there is lack of announcements about AF which causes students missed some of the AF. However, when it is put into a context, the situation is different; all the announcements are kept at METU, student society and departments web pages announcement boards in dormitories, departments, library and student society buildings. Therefore, students can follow the announcements easily. All in all, engaging extracurricular activities often has greater impact on students’ lives and also they are important for prospective teachers to develop effective teacher characteristics. The students should be guided to attend the activities by departments, instructors and the student union. There should be a supportive environment so that students have fewer obstacles and more encouragement for their professional development which will contribute students gaining necessary skills and characteristics for their teaching profession. 1060 Toward Their Professional Development: Do the Prospective Teachers References Ausubel, P. D. & Robinson, F. G. (1969). School Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston Inc. Cruickshank, D.R., Bainer, D.L., Metcalf, K.K (1995). Act of Teaching. USA: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Darling-Hammond, L. & Baratz-Snowden, J. (2005). A Good Teacher in Every Classroom: Preparing the Highly Qualified Teachers Our Children Deserve. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Erdoğan, M., Uşak, M. & Aydın, H. (2008). Investigating prospective teachers’ satisfaction with social services and facilities in Turkish universities. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 7 (1), 17-26. Güçlü, N. & Güçlü, M. (1996) Öğretmen Eğitiminde Nitelik Sorunu. Paper presented at Modern Öğretmen Yetiştirmede Gelişme ve İlerlemeler Symposiun. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi, Ankara: Mesleki ve Teknik Açıköğretim Okulu Matbaası. 48-60. Medley, D. (1986). Teacher Effectiveness. In H. Mitzel (Ed.), The encyclopedia of educational research (pp. 1894-1903). New York: MacMillan. Ornstein, A. C. (1976). Can We Define a Good Teacher? Peabody Journal of Education, 53 (3), 201-207. Önder, S. (2003). A Research on Determination of Recreational tendency and Demands of Students of Selcuk University. Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 17 (32), 31-38. Zeichner, K. M., Grant, C., Gay, Geneva, Gillette, M., Valli, L. & Villegas, A. M. (1998). A research informed vision of good practice in multicultural teacher education: Design principles. Theory into Practice, 37 (2), 163171. Ways of Upgrading the Values of Action Researches Focused on the Life-Long Learning of Teachers Dean Iliev, University St Kliment Ohridski – F.Y.R.O.Macedonia Abstract In the article will be presented our experience in organizing and realizing educational action researches, and the experience in realizing action research in the public administration. There will be some discussions about the possibilities in establishing the action research with the whole range of theoretically described characteristics. The first part of the paper will give the theoretical assumptions of the action researches. In the second part the processes of life-long learning of teachers will be in our focus. The third and the last part of the paper will deal with the creation and realization of the action researches in the processes of life-long learning of teachers, especially in the sense of triangulation, quadrangulation and some other ways of their validation. Key words: Action research, validation triangulation; quadrangulation life-long learning, teacher education. Introduction The interest of researching the life long learning by action research increases by the fact that researches get practical dimension and they are real opportunity for changes. Led by the values of action researches, their theoretical methodologically negative as well as practically positive influences, the scientists are triggered to study the possibilities for improvement of those values. Particularly interesting and provocative are the attempts for overcoming the “disadvantages” of action researches which study the life-long learning of teachers. 1062 Ways of Upgrading the Values of Action Researches Focused on the Life-Long Learning Theoretical Assumptions of the Action Researches Speaking about the action researches we certainly don’t think of research added to action or action added to research. Everybody has the right to agree or disagree with this statement, but in the problem of defining the action researches lies the challenge of studying the action researches. With this agrees Todd (Todd. R.W.) who says that – “…the problem with action research is that this term covers different things when it is used by different authors”. Some authors determine the action research according to the goal direction. (Kemmis S.& McTaggert R.; Masters, 1995; (Hitchock&Hughes, 1995; Patterson L.&Shannon P., 1993; Borgia&Schuler, 1996) Here comes the view of Carr and Kemmis (Carr W.& Kemmis S., 2002, p. 180) who claim: “The topics of action researches- the things which they research and which they try to improve are their educational practice, understanding of their practice and situations in which they are practiced.” Here is the one of Lawton&Gordon, (1993, p. 47) who think that it is a research whose “intention is not simple to understand and transmit but to make certain improvements.” The fact that the action research can differ by those who realize them and their background (internal and external practitioners, researchers done by independent researchers practitioners or researchers practitioners or researches done in collaboration, as it is claimed by (Stringer E. (1996); Ferrance E., 2000; Schostak, 1999). The definition which allow to be grouped in separate group are as Paul Robert thinks: “Action research as both words of the term stress, combine the action in the world with the research of the world. Because of that, it brings together the two realities of human activity, acting and dealing, which very offer are seen as separate activities.” According to Elliot J., the action research can be defined as “ a study of social situation with a view of improvement of the quality and the action in it.” The aim of action researches is to trigger practical decisions in certain situations: In the same, but in other words speaks Mc. Kernan J. for whom “… it is a systemic research by the practitioners for improvement of their practice.” (McKernan, 1996, p.4-5) More about the definitions in Iliev D. (2006 p. 43-56). There are differences in action researches in the goal direction of the research which can be seen by the span of the areas which are suitable for their implementation proposed by Cohen L. and Manion L. According to them: “… it is a means for solving the problems diagnosed in specific situation; It is a means for in-service training in order to equip the teachers with new abilities and methods to sharpen their analytical power and to raise their self-conscience; Dean Iliev 1063 It is a means for adding additional and innovative approaches towards teaching and studying in the system, which usually inhibited the innovation and the change; It is a means for improvement of the poor communication between the teacher practitioners and academic researchers and improvement of the defects of the traditional research by giving clear recipe...” (Cohen&Manion, 1994, p. 188-189) Life-Long Learning as a Paradigm of Teacher Improvement The key point of life-long learning of teacher is to "…teach every teacher to find the answers of their own problems.” (Asiedu K-Akrofi., 1985, p. 69) That means that “The improvement and life-long learning of teachers has become compulsory and it is as important as their initial education”. (Mitrović D., 1981, p. 284) which give us a fait for fighting for the proffessionality. Tight stressed that „There is, however, no “standard” model of what a lifelong education system might look like” (2002, p. 41) In accordance to creative approaches in creating action researches with the upgraded values we will stress the possibilities of researching the alternative forms in life-long learning of teachers: “…coaching and counselling; peer assisted leadership; consultancy; private study; critical friendship; quality circles; critical incident analises; self development; distance learning; shadowing; job rotation and simulation. (Peček, Černigoj&Vaupot, 2002, p. 170-171) The Quality of the Action Researches in a Sense of Life-Long Learning of Teachers The value of the action researches focused on life-long learning primarily can be seen in the way of validation of the research. That validation understands studying of the research procedures in: the way of their application, time and duration of their application, direction of those procedures, differences in the procedures etc. Namely, the specific ways of validation of action researches in studying the life-long leaning of teachers get specific characteristics. Understanding that the triangulation is a principle of getting observation/ accounts of the situation (or some aspect) from different angles and perspectives, and after that their comparison and contrast.” (Elliot J., 2001, p. 82-83) and a way of “… using of different sources of data, time, period and methods of accepting data which will result with similar results” (McMillan&Wergin) is not enough to explain their application in studying the life-long learning of teachers. Neither the fact that triangulation can be “internal” and “external”, (more in Participatory action research: basic methods and techniques) nor appearing in one of the four levels: “conceptual/theoretical 1064 Ways of Upgrading the Values of Action Researches Focused on the Life-Long Learning triangulation- viewing the project from different models and perspectives; triangulation of information- data gathered in different circumstances: triangulation through using different researches; methodological triangulationdone by gathering data with different methods of research. (Mc Kernan, 1996, p. 188) are not enough for qualitative studying of life-long learning of teachers. Taking into consideration the fact that couldn’t be made sharp distinction between the formal, informal and no-formal education of teachers and life long and life-wide learning according to their goal direction- improvement of the students results. As common characteristics of action researches are: Constant improvement; Constantly checking and examining; Using their positive experiences; Changing their negative solutions; Strengthening the teaching proffessionality; Never ending process. One of the ways of advancement of the application of triangulation as a way of validation of action researches in life-long learning of teachers is its application as non-scientific method which can be called subjective triangulation. Subjective triangulation is directed toward defining of two sources aspects or methods for studying of reality which would agree with the “knowledge” or experience of the teacher researcher. The subjective triangulation can be defined, currently, or post-productively. In the In the defining subjective triangulation the teacher researcher determines the aspect of crossing and contrasting before the beginning of the research, in the current he chooses them while the research is realized, and postproductive when the sources of knowledge are searched taking into consideration the final products of the action research. The basic principle in realization of the subjective triangulation is the teacher, trying to find “knowledge” which will correspond to their own view on the condition, not to influence those sources. The other way which can improve the application of the action researches in life-long learning of teachers is applying the so called reserved triangulation. This way of validation refers to action researches realized by external researchers. We talk about given statement- seen by the teachers who are examined. In this case triangulation is impossible without taking into consideration the statement, experience and views of the teacher whose activity or behaviour is in the focus of the action research. The statement of the teacher is not the subject of the critics. A third way of improving the action researches is self-triangulation. Selftriangulation is a process of crossing the teacher’s “knowledge” from the action Dean Iliev 1065 researches got only by their own experience. The teacher triangulates their own opinions, impressions, expectations and experience in a longer period and according to all these, estimates the values of the action in the action research. Quadrangulation as a “…four-sided process of evaluation in a natural circumstances” (McKernan, 1996, p. 187-215) can be seen in a more creative way for development of the values of the action researches. Giving a sense of the quadrangulation for self-evaluation, indicative quadrangulation and nonformal quadrangulation the teacher will strength their own ability for evaluation of their own action researches. About the creativity in validation of the action research through quadrangulation will be discussed in a wider and precision way in some other occasion. Summary No matter how much we try to talk about the objectivity of knowledge got by action researches, we must face the experience of teachers. The action researches get bigger importance when a base of their validation is triangulation and quadrangulation, framing in the experience of the teachers. Their research views, attitudes and understanding should be analyzed and evaluated in a constructive way. Subjective triangulation, reserved triangulation and selftriangulation should be directions in the process of upgrading the values of Action Researches focused on the life-long learning of teachers. References Asiedu K-Akrofi (1985). The professional and personal develepment of the teacher, Nigerija publishers A Memorandum on Lifelong Learning (2000) Commission of the European communities, Retreived August 23.2008 from http://www.bolognaberlin2003.de/pdf/MemorandumEng.pdf Beinum H. and Beinum I. L. (2001). An Introduction, in Action research: Empowerment and Reflection (Ed.), Boog Ben, Coenen Harrie& Keune Lou, Dutch University Press Carr W. & Kemmis S. (2002). Becomong Critiical: Education, Knowledge and Action Research, London and New York: RoutledgeFalmer. Cohen L.&Manion L. (1994). Research methods in education, 4th edition, London and New York: Routlege. Elliot J. (2001). Action research for educational change, London: Open University Press 1066 Ways of Upgrading the Values of Action Researches Focused on the Life-Long Learning Iliev D. (2006). Akcioni istra`uvawa vo obrazovanieto, Bitola: Pedago{ki fakultet Lawton D. & Gordon P. (1993). Dictionary of education. London: Hoder & Stoughton. McKernan J. (1996). Curricullim action reserach, A Handbook of Methods and Resources for the Reflection practitioner. London: Kogan page. Mitrović D.(1981). Moderni tokovi komparativne pedagogije, Sarajevo: Svijetlost Peček P., Černigoj M.&Vaupot R. S. (2002). Non-formal Staff Development in Primary Schools, In Ed. Leading schools for learning, Ljubljana: National leadership school. Roberts P. (1997). Engaging With Theory. Action research. Article 1, page 2, Retreived January 23. 2003 from http://www.minotaursegg.co.uk/ eng1a.html Tight M. (2002). Key Concepts in Adult Education and Training- Second Edition, London and New York: RoutledgeFalmer Todd R. W., Why do action research? Retreived November 18.2002 from http://www.philselfsupport.com/why_ar.asp Validation and Recognition of Experiential Learning, (2007). Final Book of the Reaction project, Socrates-Grundtvig 1, Kaunas: VDU What a Mentor Means in the Romanian Rural Education System Langa Claudiu, Soare Emanuel, University of Pitesti - Romania Abstract The present paper attempts at identifying the characteristics of mentor which is to be found in the rural environment of an important area in Romania which holds approximately 25% of the country’s surface. According to statistics, 50% of the country’s population lives in the rural areas. This fact leads to a specificity of the training needs of students living here, which are highly different from those of the students living in the urban areas. The results of the study will contribute to the improvement of the mentor-mentee relations in the rural environment. The study represents a research based on a questionnaire and interview with the teachers teaching in the Muntenia province. It is also connected to the urgent, pressing objectives of the socio-educational reform in Romania, related to the European exigencies. Key words: Educational mentorship, rural education, mentor Rural Romanian school, although has suffered profound changes in the latest years, is still an institution with conservative tendencies. Nevertheless, the qualities of our educational system are reflected by its ability to flexibly adapt to the social dynamics, its requirements, to the level of assimilating those values and standards able to shape a coherent pattern, adequate to a modern and democratic society. At the level of the Department for Teacher’s Training (DTT) from the University of Pitesti an ampler research is run and unfolded under the title CAMED (QUALITY IN EDUCATIONAL MENTORSHIP), project financed by CNCSIS, 2007 Competition, theme no. 3, code 1157, manager Professor dr. Liliana Ezechil, DTT, University of Pitesti. Within this project, there was realized a curriculum of training the mentors in pre-university education. This curriculum has been implemented in a program 1068 What a Mentor Means in the Romanian Rural Education System of teachers’ continuous training, program which was also run for the teachers in the rural environment, belonging to a significantly large geographical area in Romania. The quality of life receives its brightness by culture, education and creativity, which lead to the development of the human being. In the process of the individual’s development, school has a role of a paramount importance. From May to August 2008, there was unfolded a questionnaire-based study. The sample of respondents consisted in 205 teachers in Arges, Teleorman, Olt and Valcea Counties, where DTT runs the training program. The research tehnique used is the socilogical questionnaire which contains a number of 17 questions structured on three dimensions, as follows: - dimension 1 – information held by teachers as regards the existence, on a national and European level, of quality standards for the teacher profession, of the courses of continuous training attended by the respondents for their training as mentors. - dimension 2 – competences / abilities necessary to the teacher’s mentor status, adapted to the training needs of the debutant teacher, the concordance between initial pedagogical training, with a special view to the competences required from the mentor and the need of perfecting in this area. - dimension 3 – the factual data, regarding the level of education / the institution grauated, specialization, didactic position and grade, experience in the educational system, school unit and place. The teachers included in the respondents sample are part of the target group of the training program mentioned above; this program aims at personal and professional development in deep accordance with the teacher’s current competences profile, as it is promoted on a national and European level, in order to become providers of an authentic culture of quality in the school units they represent and to capitalize the potential existent in the local community where they unfold their activity. One of the major objectives of the project is the capitalization of the human potential from the schools in the rural environment, as regards the optimization of the graduates’ career-orientation process and the optimal use of the local/communitary resources. It also aims at launching concrete actions of correlating the educational activities unfolded in the rural high-schools with the local/communitary needs in the area of students’ school and professional orientation. The arguments for the necessity of developing those competences required from a good mentor in the rural environment are offered also by the fact that 89% of Romanian territory is represented by the rural space. There are over 1069 Langa Claudiu, Soare Emanuel 12.000 villages and the rural population represent 46, 6% of the total population. The structure of the working force in the rural environment is as follows: 67% agriculture, 17% food industry, 16% agricultural and non-agricultural services. The age structure is: 30% > 55 years of age; 53% of men > 49 years of age and 56% of women between 50-54 years of age. Another important argument is given by the fact that the level of education is rather low within rural population. The income per person in the rural environment is also 27% smaller than in the urban environment (The source: Romanian Statistic Year-book, 2007). In order to exemplify these facts, we present below several data we consider more significant related to the intention of defining the competences profile of the efficient mentor-teacher. Have you acquired a special training as a mentor? Frequency Percent In the last 15 years 10 4.9 In the last 10 years 8 3.9 In the last 5 years 15 7.3 never 172 83.9 Total 205 100.0 All the didactic staff who admitted not having a special training as a mentor, has declared that they need a training program for training and developing the competences necessary to a mentor. What do the mentors themselves think of the good mentor’s profile? The inventory of competences defining for the mentor’s profile in the conception of the investigated teachers is quite large. At this open question, the questions received have been processed both quantitatively and qualitatively by integrating the minor competences in categories with a broader level, always related to teacher’s competences profile (concept with a larger sphere than the mentor-teacher one): Competences in the area of mastering the content of the specialty discipline Frequency Percent 1st place 96 46.8 2nd place 25 12.2 3rd place 20 9.8 unestimated 64 31.2 Total 205 100.0 1070 What a Mentor Means in the Romanian Rural Education System The numbers show the fact that half of the respondents place on the first place the competence of mastering the contents of the specialty discipline. Competences of didactic communication Frequency Percent 1st place 55 26.8 2nd place 68 33.2 3rd place 35 17 4th place 5 2.5 unmentioned 42 20.5 Total 205 100.0 The fact that only 20, 5% of the respondents have not mentioned this competence as being important in the mentor’s profile leads to the idea that this competence is well quoted. As it is shown by the statistic distribution, 60% of the questioned teachers have highly evaluated this competence. Interpersonal, social and civic competences Frequency Percent 1st place 35 17 2nd place 64 31.21 3rd place 43 21 4th place 10 4.9 unmentioned 53 25.8 Total 205 100.0 This category of competences is highly valorized, as in the rural environment the teachers do not come from the villages they are distributed in following the tenure exam. In order to be integrated in the respective communities, as a rule rather small, they have to prove interpersonal, social and civic competences. This is reflected in the mentor-mentee relation, because the relations between teachers and students are closer. Competences of planning and organizing the didactic activity Frequency Percent 1st place 30 14.63 2nd place 41 20 3rd place 52 25.37 4th place 10 4.9 unmentioned 72 35.10 Total 205 100.0 1071 Langa Claudiu, Soare Emanuel The obtained data lead us to the idea that teachers have become aware of the importance of planning and organizing didactic activities in the mentor’s competences profile, because a young teacher or a student who learn from a mentor should know first of all how to organize their resources. Competences of class management Frequency Percent 1st place 3 1.5 2nd place 8 3.9 3 place 29 14.15 4th place 7 3.41 unmentioned 158 77.07 Total 205 100.0 rd The competences of class management are, as it can be observed, little valued by the respondents. The fact that 77, 07% of them do not mention anything related to this category of competences reveals the poor understanding of their role. This type of result suggests us to include this theme in our future programs of mentor-teachers’ continuous training, in order to better underline its significance. Competences of career counseling and management Frequency Percent 2nd place 9 4.4 3rd place 20 9.76 4th place 9 1.2 unmentioned 167 85.9 Total 205 100.0 As it can be observed from the statistic table, these competences are the least valued, being mentioned almost to a very insignificant extent. This is the motif of including a module regarding career counseling in the continuous training program, in order to underline the importance and usefulness of these competences in the profile of the mentor from the rural environment. Trying to synthesize some conclusions on the data offered by the respondents concerning the profile of the efficient mentor, the following statistical situation resulted: 1072 What a Mentor Means in the Romanian Rural Education System Competences in the area of mastering the content of the specialty discipline Competences of didactic communication 5,65 6,98 20,95 Interpersonal, social and civic competences 19,76 Competences of planning and organizing the didactic activity 24,07 22,59 Competences of class management Competences of career counseling and management Competences of teacher-mentor profile The configuration of the competences colors leads us to the estimation that teachers are not fully familiarized with the competence standard of the mentorteacher. However, the fact that they attend this program clearly shows us that they are well aware of the importance of developing a set of competences which would help them in the mentor-mentee relation. The way in which teachers in the rural and urban environment value certain competences differ, in the way that, in the rural environment, the local community and teachers value the interpersonal, social and civic competences more highly. Due to the fact that our research has been elaborated around a project of institutional development, the factual data have a significant relevance in the process of identifying the needs of continuous training on teaching staff categories. The numbers below confirm the heterogeneous character of the reference group. Specific information on the members of the respondents’ group: Didactic position Frequency Percent Secondary-school teacher 83 40.5 Arts and crafts school teacher 33 16.1 High-school teacher 89 43.4 Total 205 100.0 Langa Claudiu, Soare Emanuel 1073 In the Romanian educational system, the number of the didactic staff changes from year to year, independently from the number of students, affecting artificially and without any significant qualitative contribution to the education budget. Young teachers will not work in the rural environment, because the number of the facilities they are offered is quite small or almost inexistent (besides the rural benefit and the discount of transportation in some villages). Most teachers who, following an exam, choose to teach in the rural environment, stay there only if they come from the respective villages; the others are looking for a chance to leave: pre-transfers, contest transfers, transfers in the interest of the education or even leave the system. The teachers who teach in the rural environment, in villages situated very far from the towns, have to live there. Therefore, they borrow from the villagers’ style of life, which consists mainly in earning their living by agriculture, becoming, in this way, accepted members of the community. This means that most of their time is dedicated to agricultural activities. Another sound reason for this status-quo is represented by the poor salary a teacher is paid in the preuniversity education. Consequently, the poor quality of the educational act is motivated by the financial aspect and the lack of time. One of the objectives of the project consisted in changing the mentality of the teachers included in the project, currently unfolding. The psychopedagogical competences have been developed because the training program, which had 326 hours, displayed psycho-pedagogical disciplines in a proportion of 80%. The results of the training program could be confirmed by the followup activities realized by technical experts (trainers) included in the program. References Ezechil, L. (coord.). (2008). Calitate în mentoratul educaţional. Bucureşti: Editura V.&I. Integral. Ezechil L., Soare E., Langa C. (2008). Study on Students’ Perceptions on the Pedagogical Practice Mentor’s Desirable Profile. Scientific BulletinEducation Sciences Series, No. 1. Piteşti: Editura Universităţii din Piteşti. Tomlinson P. (1998). Understanding mentoring – reflective strategies for school-based teacher preparation. Philadelphia: Open University Press, PA 19106. Verloop, N., Vermunt, J.D.H.M (2001). Mining the Mentors Mind – the elicitation of mentor teachers’ practical knowledge by prospective teachers, Anneke Zanting, Leiden University. 1074 What a Mentor Means in the Romanian Rural Education System Ezechil L., Soare E., Langa C., (2008). Mentor's perceptions on necessary competences for this role. Education Facing Contemporary World Issues. Piteşti: Editura Universităţii din Piteşti. What Can Teacher Autobiographies Reveal about Teachers’ Lives and Thinking? Beyhan Nazli Kocbeker Eid, Ahmet Saban, Selcuk University – Turkey Abstract This autobiographical inquiry investigated the main reasons why people choose to become a primary school teacher, their main reasons to stay in primary school teaching, and their major expectations and worries for the future. Participants included 20 primary school teachers enrolled in the master’swithout-thesis program in primary school teaching during the spring of 2008 at Selcuk University. Content analysis technique was used to analyze the autobiographical narratives written by the participants. Findings revealed that people choose to become a primary school teacher mostly for extrinsic (e.g., parental influence, etc.) and intrinsic (e.g., love of children and teaching, etc.) reasons, but they continue to stay in teaching mostly for extrinsic, intrinsic, and altruistic reasons (e.g., wanting to contribute to the future of society, etc.). Once teachers are in the profession, their major expectations (e.g., more professional development, etc.) and worries (e.g., poor work conditions, etc.) also start to influence their professional lives and thinking. Key words: Autobiographical research, teacher thinking reasons for and expectations from teaching Introduction and Purpose Currently, many educators (e.g., Bushnell & Henry, 2003; O’Brien & Schillaci, 2002; Trapedo-Dworsky & Cole, 1999) have suggested a reconceptualization of educational research in order to hear teachers’ voices more loudly, clearly, and articulately. Indeed, according to Cole and Knowles (2000), teaching itself is an autobiographical act. To teach is to construct an autobiographical account, to develop a living text. The autobiographical nature of teaching is an 1076 What Can Teacher Autobiographies Reveal about Teachers’ Lives and Thinking? acknowledgement of the power of lives lived, the primacy of experience, and the potential for self- and other-generated (re)examinations of practice. (Cole & Knowles, 2000, p. 22) The important point of Cole and Knowles’ (2000) argument is that “Each of us has a rich and interesting personal history and, whether we are aware of it or not, our histories come with us daily to our professional practice” (p. 27). With this understanding in mind and using the autobiographical inquiry approach, this study intended to investigate the main reasons why people choose primary school teaching as a profession as well as the reasons why they continue to stay in it. Specifically, the following questions guided the study: • Why primary school teaching is chosen as a profession? • What motivates primary school teachers to stay in teaching? • What are primary school teachers’ professional expectations and worries for the future? Method Pinar (1981, p. 184) contends that “Autobiographical method offers opportunities to return to our own situations, our ‘rough edges’, to reconstruct our intellectual agendas”. For this purpose, mini-autobiographies were used with master’s-level Teaching Creative and Critical Thinking students as a means to develop an awareness of their lives and thinking and gain insights into how they view teaching in general. Participants were 20 (10 male and 10 female) primary school teachers enrolled in the master’s-without-thesis program in primary school teaching during the spring of 2008 at Selcuk University. Their ages ranged between 26 and 32 with a mean age of 28. Moreover, participants’ teaching experiences ranged between 3 and 7 years with a mean year of 5. Content analysis technique was used to analyze the autobiographical narratives written by the participants. Their reasons for entering and staying in teaching were grouped into the following three main categories described by Kyriacou, Hultgren, and Stephens (1999, p. 374): (1) Altruistic reasons, which deal with seeing teaching as a socially worthwhile and important job, such as a desire to help children succeed and a desire to help society improve. (2) Intrinsic reasons, which cover aspects of the job activity itself, such as the activity of teaching children and an interest in using subject matter knowledge and expertise. (3) Extrinsic reasons, which cover aspects of the job which are not inherent in the work itself, such as long holidays, level of pay, and status. 1077 Beyhan Nazli Kocbeker Eid, Ahmet Saban Findings Reasons for entering teaching Table 1. Reasons for becoming a teacher Extrinsic reasons f Mentioned by 7 T1, T3, T8, T10, T14, T16, T20 6 T8, T11, T12, T13, T16, T17 Former teacher influence (e.g., former teachers set up a good example) 5 T3, T4, T15, T18, T19 Teaching offers good job security and a steady 4 income (e.g., obligated to become a teacher because of his/her family’s financial problems) 5 T9, T11, T18, T19, T20 Teaching offers long holidays and summer vacations (e.g., teaching is not a full-time job) 2 T11, T19 Teaching is advantageous for a woman when raising 6 a family (so she could take care of housework and children) 1 T20 f Mentioned by 5 T8, T9, T12, T14, T16 4 T7, T9, T10, T19 3 T2, T3, T9 2 T5, T6 1 T20 1 T18 1 Parental influence (e.g., father, mother or both parents were teachers) Fell into teaching by mistake because of the 2 university entrance exam system (e.g., not enough score to choose from other professions) 3 5 Intrinsic reasons 1 Liked teaching while doing his/her first student teaching experiences at college Perceived teaching as a psychologically satisfying 2 and rewarding profession (e.g., past schooling experiences gave him/her a positive image of teaching) 3 Childhood dream (e.g., always felt emotional attachment to teaching) A sense of calling for teaching (i.e., always liked the 4 school atmosphere because it was full of new experiences) Developed an interest into teaching through the coursework and learning experiences at college Professional curiosity (e.g., wondered how it felt to be 6 a teacher and give exams to students) 5 Note: Some teachers mentioned more than one reason in more than one category. Table 1 indicates the reasons why people choose to enter primary school teaching. An analysis of Table 1 indicates that the profession of primary school teaching in Turkey is being chosen mostly for extrinsic and intrinsic reasons. 1078 What Can Teacher Autobiographies Reveal about Teachers’ Lives and Thinking? Participants in this study provided a total of 12 reasons (six of which were extrinsic and the other six were intrinsic reasons) for becoming a primary school teacher. The most important extrinsic reasons were related to “parental/former teacher influences” and “the steady income” that the teaching job offered to the participants. What could be shocking here is that a considerable number of them “fell into teaching by mistake because of the university entrance exam system (e.g., not enough score to choose from other professions that required higher scores than teaching)”. The most important intrinsic reasons given for entering the field of primary school teaching were related to the act of teaching itself. Some participants “liked teaching while doing their first student teaching practices at college” while others viewed “teaching as a psychologically satisfying and rewarding profession”. Still, for some “teaching was their childhood dream”, towards which they were emotionally attached. Reasons for staying in teaching Tables 2 indicates the reasons why primary school teachers continue to stay in teaching. An analysis of Table 2 indicates that primary school teachers in Turkey continue to stay in teaching mostly for three types of reasons (i.e., extrinsic, intrinsic, and altruistic). Participants in this study provided four extrinsic, five intrinsic reasons, and four altruistic reasons for not leaving teaching. The most important extrinsic reasons were related to the “love and appreciation of students” and “financial concerns”. Their most important intrinsic reasons were related to the “confidence and experience in teaching” and “love of children”. Again, their most important altruistic reasons were related to “wanting to contribute to the future of the society” and “having a strong desire to help children to fulfill their potentials.” 1079 Beyhan Nazli Kocbeker Eid, Ahmet Saban Table 2. Reasons for staying in teaching Extrinsic reasons f Love and appreciation of his/her students/parents 1 2 10 Financial concerns (e.g., is afraid of not finding any other jobs to make a living) 3 Help and support of his/her colleagues 4 Appreciation of administration and inspectors Intrinsic reasons Confidence and experience in teaching (e.g., feels 1 that s/he teaches well and that s/he has good teaching skills) Love of children and teaching (e.g., likes to share 2 his/her life with students) Valuing teaching as a psychologically rewarding 3 and satisfying profession (e.g., feels that teaching helps his/her personal and professional development) 3 Mentioned by T1, T3, T4, T6, T9, T14, T15, T16, T17, T19, T11, T12, T20 2 T1, T4 1 T1 f Mentioned by 8 T1, T4, T5, T6, T9, T10, T13, T19, 8 T2, T3, T4, T6, T14, T16, T17, T18, 8 T1, T2, T3, T8, T12, T13, T17, T18 4 Having a strong desire to work with children (e.g., wants to share his/her knowledge with students) 2 T6, T14 5 Teaching has become his/her life-style (e.g., teaching suits best to him/her) 2 T10, T12 Altruistic reasons f Mentioned by Wanting to contribute to the future of the society 1 (e.g., difficulties about education of children in rural areas) 5 T3, T4, T7, T15, T16 Having a strong desire to help children to fulfill 2 their potentials (e.g., wanting to continue teaching new things to students) 4 T2, T8, T13, T14 Wanting to make a difference in students’ lives 3 (e.g., helping students become what they want to be in the future) 3 T7, T8, T13 Wanting to serve as a good role model to his/her students (e.g., wanting to inspire students through 4 his/her good qualifications; helping students have dreams and make their dreams come true) 2 T8, T14 Note: Some teachers mentioned more than one reason in more than one category. 1080 What Can Teacher Autobiographies Reveal about Teachers’ Lives and Thinking? Expectations and worries for the future Table 3. Expectations and worries for the future Expectations f Mentioned by 7 T1, T7, T13, T14, T15, T16, T17 6 T2, T4, T6, T8, T10, T20 3 T4, T5, T9 4 Hopes teaching will always make him/her happy 5 Expects teachers to work in better work conditions 3 T3, T11, T12 2 T9, T19 6 Hopes that all teachers will do their best in teaching 1 T2 Believes that many societal problems will be solved 7 through education of children and wants to contribute to it 1 T18 Expects students to prove that teachers’ efforts are not in vain (e.g., wants to see students in good positions in 1 life in the future; hopes to raise a generation of students who are self-confident and happy) 2 Higher career plans (e.g., expects to become an administrator) Having more personal and professional development opportunities (e.g., thinks that s/he will help his/her 3 students better if s/he had more professional development) Worries for the future Difficult and poor work conditions (e.g., no electricity, telephone, road, or water where s/he works; being the 1 only teacher in the village where s/he works) Mentioned by T1, T2, T3, T4, T6, T9, T11, 14 T13, T14, T15, T17, T18, T19 f Interference and critics of administration and 2 inspectors (e.g., feeling that teachers are not appreciated at all by their administrators or supervisors) 4 T3, T11, T15, T20 Teaching is not valued as a well-respected or a highrank profession by the society (e.g., it is easier to find a 3 teaching job than any other jobs in order to make a living) 3 T10, T13, T20 Humiliation of the society (e.g., looked down on by 4 relatives and neighbors for being a primary school teacher) 2 T1, T20 Monetary concerns and worries (e.g., it is difficult to 5 live a decent life and continue to do the teaching job well with the money earned) 2 T12, T20 Note: Some teachers mentioned more than one idea. Beyhan Nazli Kocbeker Eid, Ahmet Saban 1081 Table 3 shows some of the major expectations and worries of the participants. Teachers have strongly emphasized that they had personal plans and projects related to teaching and wanted to continue carrying them out. However, they also displayed many worries that may interfere with their career plans. Altogether, seven types of expectations and five types of worries were indentified. Many teachers (n=7) expected students to prove that teachers’ efforts are not in vain because they had done a lot for the students and so wanted to see them in good positions in life in the future. Some teachers (n=6) also talked about their “higher career plans (such as expecting to get their master’s degree and become an administrator)”. Despite these student-focused expectations and teacher-focused career plans, participants were also concerned about the “difficult and poor work conditions” that existed in teachers’ workplaces. For example, many of them had complained about not having electricity, telephone, road, or water in the villages where they work. Discussion Autobiographical accounts begin with the past and continue into the present life experiences, which in turn can help teachers to weave together the fabric of their past, present, and future lives. Thus, in examining primary school teachers’ lives and thinking through mini-autobiographies in this study, the aim was to gain information that will improve our knowledge of the teaching profession (e.g., working in difficult and poor conditions make many teachers stressful and discourage them) and to provide teachers opportunities for reflection that might lead to better professional development. It was also important for teachers to reflect on their experiences as students as well as general life experiences to gain insight into their teaching practices. Through writing up autobiographies, for instance, they had a better understanding of their major difficulties or problems they had in their profession as well as their major expectations and worries for the future. One teacher (T20), for example, admitted that primary school teaching did not suit to her personality because she thought she was unsuccessful in this job. So she wanted to continue her graduate studies and specialize in her field and if possible work with college students later on because she believed this would be a better alternative for her. Through this autobiographical inquiry, it was also hoped that primary school teaching as a profession would be better understood by the members of the Turkish society and the world. For example, only two participants indicated that “help and support of colleagues” was a major reason for them to continue to teach. More importantly, only one teacher felt that he was appreciated by his administrators and/or inspectors, while the majority of them (n=14) were 1082 What Can Teacher Autobiographies Reveal about Teachers’ Lives and Thinking? concerned about the “difficult and poor work conditions (such as no electricity, telephone, road, or water)” where they live and work. Findings of this study are somehow in contrast with those of Saban (2003) who studied 381 entry-level primary teacher candidates enrolled in a faculty of education of a large Turkish university during the 2001-2002 academic year. Saban (2003) found that the altruistic reasons (e.g., wanting to contribute to the future of the society, etc.) were more influential than the extrinsic or intrinsic rewards for his primary teacher trainees’ decision to become a teacher. Contrasting findings were also reported by other studies throughout the world. For instance, participants (both undergraduate and graduate students who are becoming or considering becoming primary school teachers) of Bushnell and Henry’s (2003) study have revealed that they had chosen the profession of teaching because of “their love of children” (i.e., an intrinsic motive). Conclusion Autobiographical inquiry is one way of clarifying and comprehending the link between the personal and the professional. It rests upon the premise that it is difficult for teachers to be cognizant of their teaching philosophies unless they are aware of their personal histories fully. In other words, it is through the telling of stories that teachers make sense of their lives and thinking, and the better they understand themselves as persons, the better they understand themselves as teachers. References Bushnell, M. & Henry, S. E. (2003). The role of reflection in epistemological change: Autobiography in teacher education. Educational Studies, 34(1), 38–61. Cole, A. L. & Knowles, J. G. (2000). Researching teaching: Exploring teacher development through reflexive inquiry. Needham, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Kyriacou, C., Hultgren, A., & Stephens, P. (1999). Student teachers’ motivation to become a secondary school teacher in England and Norway. Teacher Development, 3(3), 373-381. O’Brien, L. M. & Schillaci, M. (2002). Why do I want to teach, anyway? Utilizing autobiography in teacher education. Teaching Education, 13(1), 25-40. Pinar, W. F. (1981). Whole, bright, deep with understanding: Issues in qualitative research and autobiographical method. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 13(3), 173–188. Beyhan Nazli Kocbeker Eid, Ahmet Saban 1083 Saban, A. (2003). A Turkish profile of prospective elementary school teachers and their views of teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 19(8), 829-846. Trapedo-Dworsky, M. & Cole, A. L. (1999). Teaching as autobiography: Connecting the personal and the professional in the academy. Teaching Education, 10(2), 131-140. Chapter 7 Vocational Education in the Balkan Countries A Study on Vocational and Technical Teacher Training Programs in Turkey Esed Yağcı, Hacettepe University – Turkey Nevriye Yazçayır, Gazi University – Turkey Abstract The study is comprised of: 1) investigation and evaluation of the system, structure and education programs of VET-TT, 2) expert views and evaluations on how qualified VET- TT programs should be in Turkey. The study is a descriptive and qualitative research. The data have been obtained with qualitative document research and qualitative interview method. According to results of the study, Turkey primarily should develop vocational qualifications and systems for evaluations. The other findings of this research show that, it is necessary to use a program approach that has a broader base, that is modular and practice oriented; there should be active cooperation and coordination with social partners during the developmental stages of programs. Another significant finding of this study reveals the need to give teacher training as a 1, 5 to 2-year post-graduate study after the initial undergraduate study which encompasses special areas. Key words: Vocational-technical teacher training, curriculum development Introduction To current time from past in every country in the world, the basic aim of vocational-technical education system is to train qualified manpower by developing human behaviours according to requests of employment and labour market (Kretschmer, 2003). Like industrial revolution; the fact of globalization and the process of becoming a knowledge society have had deep impacts on our social life and education and naturally have caused changes in the structures and systems of vocational and technical education, too. Because of all these changes and developments, people who have had vocational training should be able to both compensate the needs of existent industry and trade markets and adapt to 1088 A Study on Vocational and Technical Teacher Training Programs in Turkey situations of those dynamic powers which will take different shapes in the future. Vocational education competencies must not only respond to national, regional and local conditions, but also to the international ones as well; vocational education establishments and their curricula must have international quality; must both keep the students inside the country and attract those from other countries (İlter, 2004). In Turkey, compulsory education is given to children between 6 and 13/14 ages in elementary schools (8 years). Secondary education level is 4 years and covers all general and vocational-technical education institutions. The main aim of secondary vocational and technical education is to train qualified manpower to related fields of occupation. Secondary vocational-technical education generally comprises of boys technical schools, girls technical schools, and commerce and tourism high schools (MEB/MNE, 2002). Graduates of these schools are expected to participate in work life. But, eventually majority of them do not get any employment. Though there is no accurate statistical information on this, it is generally seen and heard. Despite the fact that vocational education has been adopted in education councils and development plans as the educational structure which should be given priority and should be generalized in Turkey, today the proportion of general education is 65%, whereas the proportion of vocational education is 35%. Because of insufficient funding or inappropriate allocation of funds and underdevelopment of cooperation with the industry, aims of vocational and technical education have not been realized; not enough progress has been achieved towards developing a vocational education curriculum which could meet the quality and variety needs of the labour market (Akpınar, Ercan, Lyons 2001). There is a strong relationship between the effectiveness of vocationaltechnical education system and quality of vocational education teachers. Since the effectiveness and generalization of vocational education services depends on qualified teachers and managers, it is a must to give high importance to the training of vocational education teachers. In our country, vocational teacher training activities are not at required level of quality. There are certain problems in selection of the teacher candidates, training and employment (Alkan, Doğan, Sezgin 2001). This research was done with the aim of making a contribution to the development of vocational teacher training (VET-TT) curricula in Turkey. The study is comprised of investigations and evaluations of the system structure and programs of VET-TT and also, expert views and evaluation on how qualified VET-TT programs should be in Turkey. Method This research is a descriptive and qualitative study. The data of research have been obtained with qualitative document research and qualitative interview Esed Yağcı, Nevriye Yazçayır 1089 method. In this study 20 people were interviewed: 5 faculty members who have studies in the field of vocational education, 5 managers who have worked in related vocational-technical education general directorates of The Ministry of National Education, 5 business/enterprise trainers who have worked in cooperation with MONE and vocational-technical education faculties in vocational education projects and commissions of curriculum development, and 5 foreign experts. Separate interview forms were used for each interview group. Research data have undergone both content and descriptive analysis. Findings and Results The System and Structure of Vocational Teacher Education in Turkey Vocational teachers who work at vocational-technical secondary education schools are trained in three education faculties: Faculties of Technical Education, Faculties of Vocational Education, Faculty of Commerce and Tourism Education. There are a total of 22 faculties at 2006-2007 academic year: 19 technical education faculties, 2 vocational education faculties, and 1 commerce and tourism education faculty (YÖK, 2007). Students are accepted to these faculties through an exam of higher education (ÖSS). The majority of students who graduate from vocational-technical secondary schools also enrol in these faculties. Also, graduates of general secondary schools have the right to study in these faculties (Akpınar, Ercan, Lyons, 2001). The duration of education programs in these faculties is 4 years (8 terms). Curricula of these faculties consist of three main parts: 1. General culture courses: these are the courses given generally in the first and second years and are obligatory for all students. General culture programs are developed by Higher Education Council (YÖK-HEC). The courses are: Turkish language, history, mathematics, chemistry, biology, foreign languages, application of basic information technologies etc. (weight in curriculum is 12%). 2. Special area courses (field knowledge): these are related to the fields where instructors will teach theoretical and practical terms on environmental classes, workshops and laboratories. Programs for the branch courses are developed by related departments (weight in curriculum is 65%). 3. Teaching profession courses (pedagogy courses): these are the courses that equip students with teaching qualities. Programs of these courses are developed by YÖK and are the same for all vocational-technical education faculties (weight in curriculum is 25%) (YÖK, 2007). Graduates of faculties are appointed as vocational teachers by MONE, according to results of the public service selection examination (KPSS). Examination questions are about general culture and pedagogy courses. In recent years, especially, employment of vocational-technical teachers has been a 1090 A Study on Vocational and Technical Teacher Training Programs in Turkey huge problem. Because, the number of students enrolling in faculties is higher than the number of teachers needed by MONE. For this reason, particularly, graduates of certain vocational areas can not been appointed even they have succeeded in the examination (KPSS). Also, the majority of appointed teachers are working at primary schools as a teacher of technology drafting courses which are not teaching field of vocational teachers. At the same time, graduates are not able to attend and work in the related services and industry sectors because they don’t have the qualifications required for the labour market. Briefly, today, quality of vocational teachers is also a controversial issue (Akpınar, Ercan, Lyons, 2001). Expert Views on Vocational-Technical Education Faculties Functions and Goals of Vocational-Technical Education Faculties: All of the participants point to the need of training high level quality human power besides training teachers in the vocational-technical education faculties. Entering the Faculties: According to members of faculties and foreign acceptance for the experts, higher education examination (ÖSS) is not appropriate, because it does not measure required competencies for teaching profession and competencies related to the fields of vocational-technical education. Also, the members of faculties have pointed out that there are not practical examinations and interviews at the entrance to faculties. According to members of faculties, graduates of vocational high schools should be accepted to the faculties. According to all of the participants, the high numbers of students enrolling in the faculties probe a threat to the quality of education and to employment later on. Duration of Education: According to some members of faculties, 4 years of education is appropriate, but according to some, the duration of education must be defined according to properties of several vocational areas. According to foreign experts, duration is a bit long as it causes repetitions and 3 years of education can be suitable in Turkey. General Culture Programme: According to the members of faculties, general culture programme is not effective. Because, courses are applied in the same format to all vocational areas with the purpose of remedying the deficiencies resulted from the secondary school education and those courses are found not suitable for the student levels. All of participants have pointed out to the need of finding general culture courses that would support special area courses. Special Area Programme: According to instructors, the programme and its applications are not evaluated effectively with respect to training those teachers who have competencies required by the labour market. Also instructors have pointed out these views: Esed Yağcı, Nevriye Yazçayır 1091 “..Programme is not consistent with secondary education and industry, at programme applications there are consistency problems with technology with respect to infrastructure and hardware, in programmes there are no industrial applications and courses are given much more theoretically…” According to managers of MONE, there is no continuity and integrity in the programs of faculties and secondary vocational schools. In both institutions different approaches are applied. In secondary schools, a broad-based, modular program is applied, whereas faculties apply a vertical and course-based approach. Also, the faculties are developing curricula independent from MONE. According to enterprises, faculty programmes and their applications do not meet the qualifications of needed by labour market and also hardware, tools, and materials which are used in education are far behind in technology, and some vocational areas in programmes of faculties have no employments in labour market today. Also, trainers of enterprises have pointed out these views: “…programmes of faculties are very distant from enterprise understanding, in the enterprises, definitions of qualified staff are changing: human power who can set up the best communication, who thinks “we-centred” and who can produce solutions to the problems goes further than manpower who has only professional knowledge, curricula of faculties do not have properties which will equip these qualifications...” Enterprises have pointed out that all of vocational-technical curricula are prepared by the schools without consulting any enterprises and are usually not updated according to the needs of labour market. Enterprises see the curricula of faculties as only serving the needs of those students who want to do academic studies. According to foreign experts, the structure of curriculum do not let students has opportunities of progression on grade levels and is not harmonious. According to a foreign expert: “…in faculties, usually programme development, module programmes and evaluation have been misunderstood, learning has been torn into pieces; there are no standards and the members of faculties are doing what they have…” Teaching Profession courses: According to the members of faculties, some of the courses are not towards vocational and technical education, a lot of courses are given by the lecturers of special areas, and courses are not studied according to their goals. Also these views are pointed out: 1092 A Study on Vocational and Technical Teacher Training Programs in Turkey “..In programmes, there are no courses towards work life and practice, faculties are not authorized in any way about the programmes, and the problems are not taken into account by central administration, 5 hour courses not given effectively, educational tools are insufficient, training is done in classes with 70 students and there are no individual studies...” According to foreign experts: “..In faculties, numbers of students are high for each class, facilities of many faculties are very limited for pedagogical applications, the size of classes is appropriate for didactic teaching, lecturers have to use teacher centred approaches and consequently, vocational teachers’ understanding of pedagogy and learning theories is rather inadequate…” Some of the faculty members and managers of MONE and all foreign experts and trainers of enterprises have pointed out that pedagogy programme should be given as a 1 or 1,5-year post-graduate education after 4 years of under-graduate education. Competencies of Vocational-Technical Teachers: According to managers of MONE, graduates of vocational-technical education faculties do not have competencies at required levels. Managers have emphasized that teachers could not reflect to students the changes and developments in the teaching field, because they do not have market experience. Also teachers do not have competencies of computer usage in areas related to what they teach. According to enterprises; graduates from each level vocational-technical education schools who are employed are trained again at those enterprises. Incompetency in the subject of human relations is the most important problem of vocationaltechnical teachers. Also, trainers of enterprises have pointed out this incompetence as follows: “..Performances of teachers towards application are not adequate especially with respect to technologic; also their competencies in the subjects of foreign language and computer usage are not at required levels...” Curriculum Development in Vocational-Technical Education Faculties: According to the members of faculties, there is no systematic approach in teacher training, tools-materials, financing, learning environment and evaluation in curriculum development studies. In the development of curricula, serious evaluation studies are not made, the councils of faculties do evaluations only by looking at achievements of students and the validity and reliability of those Esed Yağcı, Nevriye Yazçayır 1093 evaluations are open to discussion. Also, there is no adequate evaluation research done and those who have been done are not used in program development. According to other participants, all social partners don’t participate in the curriculum development studies. Employment of Vocational-Technical Teachers: According to the members of faculties and managers of MONE, technical education faculties are opened and numbers of students are increased by YÖK without taking the needs into consideration. Also there is no study which will form the balance of supplydemand in the employment of teachers. Except for one enterprise (Renault), vocational-technical teachers are not employed by the other 4 enterprises. Enterprises have explained the reasons as follows: “In faculties generally traditional education programmes are applied and also, the majority of programmes are technical or technological programmes, not vocational; more programmes must be developed and applied towards new vocational areas” Cooperation and Relationships in Vocational Teacher Training According to all participants in this research, there is no adequate cooperation among the partners (YÖK, MONE, faculties and enterprises). Especially, cooperation and relationship between enterprises and faculties is too limited. But, in recent years, MONE has carried out two projects (SVET and MVET) for vocational-technical secondary education and vocational-technical education faculties with the support of European Union. Within the boundaries of these projects, education programmes have been developed with the participation of all partners. However, projects towards certain vocational areas have not been generalized and evaluation studies have not been done extensively. Other important findings of the research are as follows: According to all participants who have attended the research, vocational-technical education faculties should be reconstructed. In order to do that, a system of occupational standards and certification based on vocational qualifications should be formed at national level and at each level of vocational education; courses should be developed as modular programmes which have been developed by taking vocational standards as basic. Comments and Suggestions When the findings and results of the research are analyzed, it can be easily seen that there is a need of modernization and development in the system, structure and programme of VET-TT. VET and VET-TT should be reconstructed with an integrative approach. The following are given as suggestions of this study: 1094 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. A Study on Vocational and Technical Teacher Training Programs in Turkey General culture programme of vocational-technical education faculties should be developed to include vocational areas like competencies and skills at foreign languages, communication and information technologies. Special areas programs of vocational-technical education faculties should be prepared and applied as to ensure performance education which rests upon practice. In faculties, pedagogic programme should be developed and applied towards vocational education and courses of industrial relationships should be included in that programme. There should be an effective cooperation and coordination with social partners at the each stage of curriculum development The numbers of students in faculties should be defined according to the needs. The researches that are done in vocational-technical education faculties should be towards vocational and technical education. References Alkan, C., Doğan, H., Sezgin, İ. (2001). Principals of Vocational and Technical Education. Ankara: Nobel Publication Delivery. Akpınar, A, Ercan H, Lyons, N, (2001) Report of Vocational and Technical Education System, National Observatory Country Report, European Education Foundation, National Observatory Net, Ankara İlter, F. (2004) “Education Association-enterprise Dialogue, International Confe-ence”, Turkish Confederation of Employers Labors Union, 5 May, Ankara Kretschemer, H. (2003) Turkey in Process Widen of European Union, European Union Commission, Turkish Representative, September-Ankara, 4 MEB, (2002) National Education at Beginning of 2001 Year, Ministry of National Education; Researching, Planning and Coordination Council Presidency. YÖK, (2007) “Higher Education Strategy of Turkey” February, Ankara. Entrepreneurship Education – An Innovative Approach of Further Education Emanuel Soare, University of Piteşti – Romania Abstract The present paper analyzes the issues of entrepreneurship education in the context of the contemporary educational system and proposes an innovative vision which can transform itself in the link between education and work market. It emphasizes a new approach of education for values and it analyzes its impact on vocational education. By this way, entrepreneurship education can become a new educational paradigm and the present paper is presenting a series of arguments in this direction. Following the priorities established by the Lisbon Agenda regarding the development of entrepreneurship, Romania proposes a series of measures to meet these conditions. The entrepreneurship education model presented in this paper can be a possible model for school curriculum reform to meet the European aims. Key words: Education, entrepreneurship education, vocational education, entrepreneurial teacher Why Do We Need Entrepreneurship Education? The central aim of education is represented by the conscious, systematic and organized development of the individual’s personality for efficient integration to the social life. One of the fundamental challenges school has to meet is organizing the curriculum in such a way as it should lead to the development of these competences which will assure the successful achievement of educational aims. From this perspective, we ask ourselves what role the entrepreneurship education plays within this approach. Which are those fundamental competences which assure “the conscious, systematic and organized development of the individual’s personality, in order for him to efficiently integrate into social life?” 1096 Entrepreneurship Education – An Innovative Approach of Further Education The perspective we propose on entrepreneurship education (which represented the subject of other studies, see E. Soare, 2008a, 2008b) is a new one and presupposes it as an innovative way of projecting, organizing and developing the entire school curriculum (a restructuring of school and out-ofschool curriculum from the perspective of entrepreneurship education requirements, desirable to be implemented). This way of seeing entrepreneurship education represents the postmodern stage – of reconceptualization, stage where entrepreneurship education is proposed to be an innovative way of projecting into interdependence, according to curriculum paradigm (launched by Ralph Tyler in 1949), the formal-non-formal-informal curriculum. It restructures curriculum, presenting a new paradigm of education. Entrepreneurship paradigm of education summarizes concepts such as education by and for action, practical education, active-participative education, student-centered etc. Any way of centering education on the child, on involving him in the unfolding of the instructive-educative process, of capitalizing life experiences (formal, non-formal, informal) of the child aims at nothing but the development of the entrepreneurship profiles personality. These elements clearly indicate that entrepreneurship education presupposes a recreating of “the link between school and life”, as well as realizing educational partnerships at the level of the community. We present the following arguments (which can be as many motifs, objectives and competences) for this perspective on entrepreneurship education: • • • • • • • • It inspires and motivates students to learn and use knowledge in the real world It offers relevance to school learning It improves school performance and the achievement of global educational objectives, by involving students in activities which go beyond the formal sphere of education, It encourages the application of school-type knowledge in real life situations It builds active, responsible citizens It develops competences specific of critical thinking and capacity of pro-active social insertion It develops attitudes corresponding to the essential characteristics of the individual as an entrepreneur: ability of manifesting initiative, active economic behavior, assuming business risks, responsibility for taking initiative. It develops a positive self-image and facilitates the use of personal abilities in the process of initiation, planning and implementation of a business idea. Emanuel Soare 1097 This vision on entrepreneurship education as well as offering it an essential role in school curriculum represents the missing link of the educational system. It is the most efficient way of recreating the link between school-community-labor market. Values of Education and Entrepreneurship Education Education fulfills an important function related to the transmitting of the values assembly of society. It proposes itself, especially in the situation of crisis as regards the society’s socio-cultural values, a system of values. The unfolding of education for values has numberless correspondences and applications in entrepreneurship education. According to I. T. Radu and L. Ezechil (2006, p.73), education for values presupposes unfolding the activity of education on several levels, as follows: • • • • • Knowing and understanding the principles, norms and rules which govern social life, which means assimilating the culture values and a moral and civic instruction of the society members Creating the axiological patterns with the help of which the individual can appreciate diverse cultural products, which means acquiring axiological competences and developing the ability of discerning between values and non-values Developing the ability of observing the appearance of new norms and values, together with the capacity of adapting one’s behavior to them Developing beliefs corresponding to the values acknowledged by social accord, which means adherence to the value system Developing the familiarization with adopting attitudes and developing behaviors in accordance with the system of values accepted socially as well as developing a militant attitude as regards respecting the norms of con-living by the whole community These levels can find a correspondent in entrepreneurship education. They can be regarded as levels of education performance and success. Therefore, we propose entrepreneurship education as a winding process which presupposes covering the following levels (stages): 1. knowing the social problems 2. developing entrepreneurial personality 3. identifying the opportunities 4. staring and developing the initiative 5. involvement in entrepreneurship education The process of entrepreneurship education starts from a good knowledge of the problems of the social life and the community the individuals live. This is 1098 Entrepreneurship Education – An Innovative Approach of Further Education the first stage referred to. Following the crystallization of an image regarding the individual and social training needs, then starts the development of entrepreneurial personality. This should be the answer school must offer for the challenges of the social environment. The entrepreneurial personality leads to identifying the opportunities of change, in the way of internalizing, by the individuals, of the society values and challenges. Internalizing these realities manifests itself under the form of entrepreneurship. Due to the identification of action and innovation opportunities there is a form of organization (economic, social, school) of the resources necessary to their capitalization. The result of this type of education is materialized at a social level under the form of the seven hypostases of the entrepreneur, identified at the beginning of the course. The next step should lead to involving successful entrepreneurs in the implementation of the entrepreneurship education programs offered to school and community. From an educational point of view, we are interested in the entrepreneur as an exclusive product of an educational system, not in the entrepreneur type which appears due to another configuration of elements. The cycle of entrepreneurship education ends in the moment in which the entrepreneurs who are born following the process of entrepreneurship education come back in the educational system and get involved in the realization of the entrepreneurship education. This is the final goal pursued by any program of entrepreneurship education. Therefore, we answer a question, normally asked: Who can teach entrepreneurship education? The answer we give, through the proposed model, is: The entrepreneurs. Thus, entrepreneurship education is a process of some winding steps, beginning with the promotion of an educational program, subsequently to which the new created personality initiates, in its turn, an education program. Entrepreneurship Education versus Vocational Education With the help of vocational education, the youth have access to a series of skills and knowledge necessary for the professional activity pursued. They train in order to become competent in the domains which need them at a social level. These things are taken into consideration in the moment of school curriculum projection and, this way, a study program is created. The biggest problem which can appear is that of the labor market, which is in a permanent process of change. The conditions for which the study program has been projected do not find themselves in the moment of its finalization by the students. Emanuel Soare 1099 The entrepreneurship education included in the curriculum for vocational education could represent a main instrument in order to get students used to change. Entrepreneurship education represents a way of teaching students to look for change, rather than fearing it. A way of illustrating this is that the labor market is dominated by laws such as that of request and offer. This represents a motif for which the change becomes the constant of our times and has to lie at the basis of education projection. If the specialists are no longer necessary for a certain business, according to the request and offer, this means that the respective business has an offer of products and services which is larger than the request for it on the market. Therefore, entrepreneurship education can become the main instrument through which can be realized, at the level of school curriculum, the adaptation to change. Only then school can continue to answer to one of the greatest challenges that today’s society faces. Entrepreneurship education offer students, and not only, the necessary training in order to analyze the problems they will have to face in life and to create solutions to solve them. Thus, adapting curriculum for vocational education to the permanent changes on the labor market and getting students familiar with looking for opportunities in order to use entrepreneurial skills, vocational education becomes entrepreneurship education. This way of conceiving entrepreneurship education leads to the development of a new profile of teachers’ competences, a profile which may be realized only by entrepreneurship education programs. If we cannot ask from teachers competences necessary for starting a business with no relation to the pursued specialty and development profile, we can, we can ask them competences related to projects conceiving and management. The former are the results of the entrepreneurship education. Entrepreneurship cannot be learnt outside practice; students have to be offered permanent opportunities of developing visions, ideas, initiatives and behaviors specific to a successful entrepreneur. The competences and skills which entrepreneurship education proposes to develop can lie at the basis of the individual’s own success both in school career and professional and social life. Therefore, school can offer the solution which can revalorize it at a social level, and assure a dominant role in the process of forming and permanent development of the individual’s personality. References Cristea S., (2004). Studii de pedagogie generală. Bucureşti: E.D.P. Nicola, I., (1996). Tratat de pedagogie şcolară. Bucureşti: E.D.P. 1100 Entrepreneurship Education – An Innovative Approach of Further Education Radu I. T., Ezechil L. (2006). Pedagogie. Fundamente teoretice. (ed. III). Bucureşti: Ed. V.&I., Integral. Soare, E., (2008a). Educaţia antreprenorială. Ultima provocare a şcolii. Bucureşti: Ed. V.&I., Integral. Soare, E., (2008b). Entrepreneurship Education – a New Challenge for Postmodern School. Education facing contemporary world issues. Piteşti: University of Piteşti Presses. The Turkish Vocational School in Balkans: KOMEK Mücahit Sami Küçüktığlı, Selcuk University – Turkey Abstract In this study, general information about Komek that is one of the biggest Vocational Education Schools and runby local goverments in Turkey. It has many different courses varying from learning Chinese language to learning Cnc machine, for inhabitiants of Konya City. Komek is the first school that has branch in the Balcan Country: Bosna Hersegova, Sarajova. The main question is what are the reasons to open a School by a Local Goverment (Konya Metropolitian Municiplity) in Sarajova; because Konya Municipality wanted to create new job opportunties for women and young girls who live in there. On the other hand, Konya Municipality wanted to share it experience and spread Turkish traditional arts out in the Balkans with Komek Schools. Komek is very interesting vocational school in Turkey because it is the unique in Turkey to have a branch abroad in Balkan Countries. Komek is willingly to open new branches in Macedonia, Kosova next years. Key words: Komek, vocational education, balkan, further education. Introduction The end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century is birth day of the vocational education and training. Agricultural society dominated up until the early part of 20th century, but was then gradually replaced by an industrial society undergoing rapid expansion. With the transition from an agricultural to an industrial society, the demand for competence increased. The new work tasks required a higher degree of competence on the part of the skilled laborers and technicians (Abrahamsson, 1999). Today, adult education has undertaken to offer all kind of educational programs that meet the needs and interests of individuals. Apart from private and non governmental organizations, the government and local governments have brought some services to meet the increasing adult education needs. In our country, from the beginning of the 60's, the scientific arguments in the area of 1102 The Turkish Vocational School in Balkans: KOMEK adult education has formed the conceptual structure of adult education and then efforts aimed to organize adult education programs considering adults' interest and needs (ISMEK, 2007). Education is not limited by “school years” in today’s world for adults. Adult learners can participate the educational opportunities in their entire life. Although adult education has arisen as a response to particular needs of individuals in the beginning; societal, technological and cultural changes have strong effects on developing the adult education. Now adult education plays an important role in improving not only the individuals, but also the society (Ural, 2007). When the adult education became clear as a scientific discipline, it started to aim the development of the individuals and the societies. The scientific and technological developments of our age has started to increase the needs of individual and society, and led more and more people to adult education (ISMEK, 2007). In the cities of Turkey, adult education is under the internal migration situation because there are many immigrant people from village to city from the beginning 60’s so that technological development and industrialization time to now. In the last decade, years metropolitan municipalities began to serve firstly immigrant people and secondly inhabitants of cities (Alpaydın, 2006). Also, in Turkey many vocational training courses were organized in several cities and KOMEK is a such a organization that serves vocational education center that is opened by Konya Metropolitian Municipality in 2002 in Konya city. It is said that KOMEK is the first Vocational education school in Anatolia after ISMEK that is opened by Istanbul Metropolitian Municipality and BELTEK that is opened by Ankara Metropolitian Municipality. In the first years, KOMEK was not very active center. After the election in 2004, the Mayor of Konya Municipality changed. It has been seen that new mayor who is Mr. Tahir Akyurek has worked to reorganize and rebuild KOMEK courses. In the first year of KOMEK, number of student was not so much; it was just about 30 learners. And there were only a few branches. After the local election in 2004, new mayor spread out KOMEK courses in the city and he added many new courses and branches. Now, Komek has totally 40.000 students, 105 different branches and 16 course centers in Konya. In the 2007 and 2008 years, KOMEK has opened new courses in different Balkan countries: Bosna Hersegova and Macedonia countries. It is interesting situation because there was not any Vocational school center abroad that was organized by a local government. This paper investigated the financial background of KOMEK and the main reasons to open course in Balkans. Qualitative methods, such as interview, document reviews and observations methods were used to collect and analyze the data. The Vice General Secretary, The Chairman of Culture and Social Affairs, the Deputy Chairmen of Public Mücahit Sami Küçüktığlı 1103 Relation Chairmanship of Konya Metropolitan Municipality, the teachers working in Macedonia and the students from Balcan courses were interwived in the paper. Municipality documents, courses data and books were researched. Following questions were tried to be answered such as: “What is the Komek?, What international KOMEK projects are?, What the main reasons to open of KOMEK courses in Balkan Countries are?, How KOMEK courses implemented in Balkans are?, How the course funded abroad are?” KOMEK KOMEK was established in 2002. At that time, KOMEK’s name is KONMEK. KONMEK used to serve only Machine Embroidery and stocking knitting courses in a small center near the Fair area. One year later KONMEK started to develop new Courses. The second center behind the Konya Court House was opened with different branches; Icon technique, patchwork beside the machine embroidery. In the 2003 year, a new course center a bottom office of an apartment was added. Clothing and needle work were added later as new branches in the new KOMEK course center. One year later KONMEK continued to develop with new centers. In the July of the 2004, new course center was opened in the suburban areas of Konya city. In the 2004 year, there were seen just 200 students in the 9 classes and 8 branches. In the first two years, there was former Mayor of Konya Municipality. Mr. Mustafa Ozkafa started to serve as KONMEK name. The Chairmen of KOMEK wrote new the brochure of KOMEK that we served only to women students whose ages were between 16 and 45 years. To be able to increase the life standard, we had to increase our education level as public of Konya. The women who were attending courses had not had any job when they came to course. However, after the joining courses, they were very happy because they were learning a new occupation. That meant that we were improving our social life in Konya city. It was mentioned above that in the first years of KOMEK name was KONMEK. It was seen that the women were the focus group of the courses. The aim of the courses is to improve life standard of women in the Konya city. The critique time for KOMEK was election time. New Mayor who was elected in 2004 local election was Mr.Tahir Akyurek and started to develop KOMEK courses in the city of Konya. The Mayor of Konya Metropolitan Municipality says about KOMEK, “Communities can form their unique cultures and civilizations through such kinds of artistic works. Our noble nation, whose past lasted the deepness of the history, specialized in many branches of arts and put forward immortal works. Actually, our nation has produced the greatest poets, man of letters, architects, decorators, masters of marbling. Now, our real responsibility is to enrich our ancestors’ inheritance and is to be the bridges between the generations and transfer all of these beauties to next generations” 1104 The Turkish Vocational School in Balkans: KOMEK (KOMEK, 2008). After the election, Konya Municipality started to enrich KOMEK course that started with 7 course centers with 17 different branches. These courses can be categorized as handicraft courses, Turkish Islamic Arts, language, computer, music, visual arts, vocational and technical training courses. Also, to increase the consciousness of city culture, and to decrease the negative effects of urban life, KOMEK has organized several social and cultural activities (Alpaydın, 2006). The Mayor believed that KOMEK would get enough support from Konya Municipality: “As being Metropolitan Municipality, besides meeting needs of our city, we also serve to our people with the cultural and artistic activities which are among our real goals. We want our city to be pioneer at the branches of culture and art, because we want to have a better city from both material and spiritual senses. Therefore it is responsibility to support such kinds of important steps and moreover it is our duty to be pioneer to these steps. In 2006-2007, KOMEK provides two kinds of course set in cooperation with Ministry of National Education Men’s Technical Education General Directorate in Technical Schools of Konya: Courses for people who are still working in an industry (Improvement and 27 Adaptation), courses for people who don’t have an occupation (Vocational Training Courses). The aim of these courses is to increase the quality of labor force in the city to provide more qualified services. Also, training people who can follow up recent technological changes and use these facilities in industry. There are 29 branches of courses related to the use of some industrial machines, installing of water and gas systems and like (Alpaydın, 2006). The Mayor Mr. Tahir Akyurek of Konya Metropolitan Municipality tells about KOMEK, “As a matter of fact KOMEK, which is a pioneer between our unities in the municipality, works and serves for these aims and still running artistic works with various courses. We believe that such courses are the second chance for the young people and house wives. Moreover these courses reveal their real potentials and will help them to produce new and useful works. The works that are produced in our courses and of course the skills which are learnt at various courses cause our spiritual richness and economical to be increased. It is very well known that art makes people more comfortable and free of bad things. 1105 Mücahit Sami Küçüktığlı Table 1: The Application Situation of KOMEK Year Number of People Number of Certificates 2004 1096 713 2005 3138 2313 2006 6151 3921 2007 14167 8980 2008 10422 7936 Table 2: KOMEK Technical Courses Year Number of People Number of Certificates 2005 695 494 2006 609 468 2007 750 466 Indeed art is a golden bracelet, as our ancestors said before. Therefore our nation has been motivated to be interested in any branch of art and learn the relationship between master and apprentice. KOMEK (Konya Vocational Educational Center) which is founded to make our traditional art live, has caused hundreds of artists to become in the society. The center will keep going on its work. This important service of our municipality has caused so many people to have a qualification to do certain job. And of course with the important supports of our teachers who have their own words on their branches, the interests to our courses are increasing day by day.”(KOMEK, 2008) In the abstract of the Bisnev book that was written by KOMEK in the 2007 year, the Chairmen of Public and Press Relation of Konya Municipality and at the same time the Chairmen of KOMEK Sadrettin Kutukcu says “KOMEK which is serving as an adult education centre in Konya Metropolitan Municipality serves many various courses to the adult learners to qualify them with certain professions. KOMEK has served about 90 vocational and artistic courses and made 10.000 of people have their own word on their branches with support of qualified teachers.”(KOMEK, 2008) KOMEK with EU partners Konya Metropolitan Municipality has implemented two different life long learning education projects with the EU partners countries. These projects were 1106 The Turkish Vocational School in Balkans: KOMEK implemented by KOMEK and Social Research Center Directorship. One of them was SALK project that means is Sharing Affecting Life Knowledge. The first letters of the words is used title of the project as SALK. KOMEK has different partners of SALK project that are from Portugal, Italy and Latvia countries. SALK project aim is to maintain good social relationship between elderly people and young people. SALK project was implemented during the two years from 2005 to 2007. SALK project was supported under the Grundtvig life long learning project by European Union. It was the first project of KOMEK in the international area. KOMEK has different partners in this project with SFAL Senior Center from Portugal, Lueteb Third Age University from Italy and Lielvarde Senior Center from Latvia (SALK, 2007). KOMEK and Social Research Center under Konya Metropolitan Municipality was used in the SALK project total about 20.000 Euro grant from European Union. SALK project is seen that the first implemented EU life long learning project by KOMEK in Konya city. FRISM 50+ is different EU life long learning project was implemented by KOMEK in Konya city. FRISM 50+ meaning is the first letter of these words that are Finding, Reaching and Involving Senior Migrant above 50 years old. FRISM 50+ project is seen that dealing with elderly migrant people who are living in EU countries. ROC Aventus Public Education Center from Holland, Vienna Culture Center from Austria, Hamburg Public Education Center from Germany, EURAG organization from Holland, Sonderborg Evening School from Denmark are partner with KOMEK and Social Research Center Directorship under Konya Metropolitan Municipality. KOMEK is a partner institution in the project because of internal migrant issue. There was no any migrant people from different countries without some African migrant people who are living in Konya now but they applied to be resident an EU country Embassy (FRISM, 2008). Konya is seen a internal migrant problem after especially 1970’s. Many people who are living rural areas migrate to urban areas, cities like Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir and Konya. FRISM 50+ project was implemented by partners how we can succeed to increase social integration in the city between city public and migrant people (who are coming from Turkey, Middle East of Africa country for the other partners without KOMEK partner) in the European Countries and Turkey (FRISM, 2008). The project was implemented during two years starting from 2006 to September 2008. KOMEK is seen to spend about 20.000 Euro for the project. SALK and FRISM 50+ projects are seen to give big opportunities to KOMEK for international education level. These projects show KOMEK is dealing with not only Balkan countries but also EU countries. 1107 Mücahit Sami Küçüktığlı KOMEK in Balkans The first course in Balkan was opened in Saraybosna in Bosnia Herzegova as Saraybosna Culture and Education Centre in the 15 September 2007. It was opend because Balkans from the point of their geography and culture, it is a bridge between the west and east (Korkmaz, 2005). When this paper’s abstract was being written there wasn’t any KOMEK course in Macedonia. It has been started to serve Macedonian people in the 7 July 2008. Macedonian Courses were opened in three cities that are Tetova (or Kalkandelen), Gostivar and Uskup. It was seen that there are many important officials attended at opening ceremony in Macedonia on the contrary in Saraybosna opening ceremony. The Minister of Turkish Republic, the minister of Macedonia Government, the minister of Albania Government, The Mayor of Konya Metropolitan Municipality, The Uskup Ambassador of Turkish Republic, The Chief of TIKA Organization, The Deputies, The representatives of Non governmental Organization attended opening ceremony in Macedonia KOMEK courses. Embroidery, Icon technique, Turkish tiles, Marbling art, Jewelry are taught for four months twice in a year in these KOMEK courses. Turkish course is also given in addition to other courses in Saraybosna. 188 students (learners) have finished these courses since the opening time in Saraybosna. 87 students are attending embroidery, Turkish tiles, Marbling art and Turkish language courses now in Saraybosna. On the other hand, there are 309 learners who are attending KOMEK courses in Macedonia nowadays. Table 3: KOMEK Courses in Balkan Cities KOMEK Courses Macedonia Bosna Herzogova Tetova Gostivar Üsküp Saraybosna Embroidery 35 learners 32 learners 25 learners 12 learners Icon Technique 30 learners 22 learners 25 learners - Turkish Tiles 10 learners - 30 learners 17 learners Marbling Art 20 learners - 55 learners 16 learners Jeweler - - 25 learners - Turkish - - - 42 learners E. Uslu (personal communication, September 20, 2008), who is Chairman of Culture and Social Affair of Konya Municipality, said that TIKA (Turkish States Development Cooperation Agency) which was an international organization under the Turkish State and government were supporting KOMEK courses in Balkans. In Macedonia, Turkish non governmental organizations federation supported KOMEK courses by giving their building free in addition 1108 The Turkish Vocational School in Balkans: KOMEK to TIKA support. KOMEK is using the building that belongs to Turkish Culture Ministry for courses in Saraybosna. However, Konya Metropolitan Municipality spends about 12 thousand euros for rebuilding these buildings and teaching items-materials. A teacher’s salary is a thousand euro given by Konya Metropolitan Municipality. There were two teachers in Saraybosna during the two semesters for eight months. Now, Bosnian teachers who learned Turkish handicrafts and arts from Turkish teachers are teaching these courses in Saraybosna. It will be same regulation for Macedonia courses, eight months later Macedonian teachers are going to give courses to Macedonian learners. In saraybosna, language is not big problem between Turkish teacher and learners because some learners, who can speak Turkish language, are volunteer translators. There happened a KOMEK exhibition after four months later the opening courses in Saraybosna. Also, Saraybosna Mayor and Canton Prime Minister of Bosna Herzogova attended the exhibition. In the opening ceremony of the exhibition, Saraybosna Mayor said “Konya and Saraybosna are sister cities and these courses will increase our relations between. And we are very happy to open the KOMEK exhibitions in our cities” as Kuş stated (2008) in his work. The products of the exhibition, produced by learners, are sold in Bascarsi Bazaar in Saraybosna. Discussion To summarize so far, Konya Municipality is interested in opening skill based courses in Balkans because there are many art forms that are also similar in Balkans to be taught. Handicrafts, Music, architecture are very similar each nations among Turkish and Bosnian, Macedonian and Albanian more than the other Islamic countries. Vice president Otegen also stated (personal communication, August 05, 2008) “when we look at the history of Balkan Muslim society, we can see that they emigrated mostly from Konya and Karaman cities. We have relatives and tie each other historically”. Konya and Saraybosna are sister cities. We want to support each other what we can succeed it. KOMEK is important for our social and cultural life in Konya. We want to increase social and cultural activities in Saraybosna because of sister cities. When they participate to our courses, they will have job opportunities. We would like to contact more with Balkans. For example, KOMEK courses in the Saraybosna have many students from originally Croatian or Serbian. We are very happy to see this mosaic in our courses.” The Mayor of Konya Metropolitan Municipality wants to open new courses in other countries, Romania, Kosovo, Syria and South Korea. The world is preparing for the next UNESCO International Conference on Adult Education to be held a year from now in Brazil in 2009. This conference itself is incredible opportunities for adult Mücahit Sami Küçüktığlı 1109 education, institutions and organizations to come together now and connect in national and international dialogue around policy formation. References Abrahamsson, K. (1999). Vocational Education in Sweden. European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training , Thessalloniki. Alpaydın, Y. (2006). Contribution of Municipalities to Adult Education: ISMEK Case, Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Bogazici University, Istanbul. Can, D. (2008). İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi El Sanatları Dergisi 5,p.24-36. FRISM, (2008). Finding Reaching Involving Senior Migrants above 50 age Project Final Report. Konya: Konya Büyükşehir Belediyesi. FRISM, (2008). Finding Reaching Involving Senior Migrants above 50 age Project Brochure. Zutphen: Konya Büyükşehir Belediyesi. İSMEK, (2007). Öğrenen Toplum İçin Yetişkin Eğitimi Sempozyumu Bildirileri. İstanbul: ISMEK, p.8-11. İSMEK, (2008). İkinci Küreselleşme ve Yerelleşme Çerçevesinde Yetişkin Eğitimi Sempozyumu Bildirileri. İstanbul: İSMEK KOMEK, (2008).Bişnev, Ed: Kütükçü, S. Istanbul: FSF Printing House Korkmaz, M. (2005). European Union policy towards the Western Balkans The case of the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia, Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Marmara Üniversitesi. Kuş, A.(2008).İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi El Sanatları Dergisi5,p.118-128 SALK, (2007). Sharing Affecting and Life Knowledge Project Final Report. Konya: Konya Büyükşehir Belediyesi Ural. O. (2007). Öğrenen Toplum İçin Yetişkin Eğitimi Sempozyumu Bildirileri. İstanbul: ISMEK, p:12-42. Vocational Counseling Needs of Parents with Disabled Children Simona Eftimie, Alina Mărgăriţoiu, Oil-Gas University of Ploieşti – Romania Abstract The purpose of our present study was to identify the vocational counseling needs of parents, who have children with disabilities. We have made a preliminary study starting from an empirical observation: parents who have children with disabilities are confused, uninformed about their children’s possible career. There are few institutions that demonstrate real interest about having employees with disabilities. Our investigation identified the parents’ counseling needs both for accepting their and their children’s situations and for getting informed about the best option of educational, social and professional integration for the child. The final purpose of our study is to develop a program addressed to everyone involved in the vocational orientation of children with disabilities – children, parents, teachers, counselors, employers. Key words: Child with disabilities, parents of children with disabilities, vocational counseling needs Introduction Special needs children represent a large category which includes both children with deficiencies or dysfunctions and gifted children (with exceptional skills, above the norm). Our present study is referring only to children with disabilities (mental, sensorial, physical, emotional etc.) and to their parents’ needs. In Romania, since 1990, educational and social services for children with disabilities have been improved and developed, especially for the educational system: integration of this category of children into schools for “normal pupils”, going from the curriculum for all to the individual approach and individual curriculum, elaboration and implementation of personalized intervention 1112 Vocational Counseling Needs for Parents of Children with Disabilities programs, collaboration between teacher and specialists (counselor, psychologist, diagnostician, physician, language disorder therapist etc.). Unfortunately, in Romania, there is still a great distance between theoretical and practical approach of the issue of children with disabilities. Researches have identified some negative aspects about the process of educational and social integration of this category of children: • • • • • • • There are a lot of bureaucratic obstacles and an inefficient cooperation between executive and administrative institutions and structures responsible for the problems of individuals with disabilities; Many children with disabilities are still outside the educational system (they are both out of schools for children with special needs and of schools for “normal” children); Nowadays the situation of educational institutions is still unfit for every child with special needs; There isn’t a unitary national curriculum – but a different one for each kind of disability – addressed to all the children with severe and profound disabilities from special schools; There are no programs and procedures for early identification and diagnosis of disabilities; Also, there isn’t an efficient supervision program for the school integration of pupils which have disabilities; The relationship between specialists and family is still based on authorities’ responsibility and doesn’t really involve parents in the decisional process and in school’s activities (Disability Council from Romania’s Report – 2004, apud A. Gherguţ, 2005, pp. 50 – 52). Being a Parent of a Child with Disabilities The education for children with special needs is a charge divided between parents and specialists. The parents need all the support that they can get in order to assume their parental role for a child with special needs. Almost all the parents don’t anticipate the problems and the dysfunction of his child. Learning about his child’s diagnostic is a terrible shock for parents, which, very often want to know the etiology of the child’s problems. Parents reflect endlessly about their past and the guilt feeling emphasizes the pair’s problems. Although the problems became more significant after the child’s diagnosis, family members are often “in crisis” before finding the diagnostic. Behavioral disorder and delay or lack of communication is affecting the family’s life and the strategy of stress management. All family resources are focused on child’s needs (for further readings see M. Oliver, 1996 and J. Solity, G. Bickler, 1994). Simona Eftimie, Alina Mărgăriţoiu 1113 Parents of children with special needs are characterized by special structures into the emotional sphere, with insight conflicts and much dissatisfaction (for more details see J. Trowell and M. Bower, 1995). For example, the father of a child with severe mental deficiency confessed us once: “For a long time, I didn’t speak about my boy, because it was too hard. All my projects and my expectations were destroyed. I was thinking about God – and I didn’t really believe in God – and I asked myself: Why me? It is so unfair!” For the last few years, there is a growing up interest about the problems of children with disabilities. This situation leads to mass media’s interest for this kind of subjects – child and his / her family problems, therapeutical issues etc. – and therapeutical techniques had became a very profitable business and the child’s desperate parent is the victim. An example of interest about the problems of parents which have children with autism was the study made by Romanian psychologist Anca Neagu since 2006. She determined that this category of parents is characterized by: • • Super-anxiety (determined by the lack of the child’s social contacts, delay in language development, stereotype movements, hyperactivity, the absence of eye contact); Depression (about 45% to 50%); Neurotic disorder – especially mothers (http://autismul.wordpress.com). There are parents who don’t accept their child’s destiny, reject the reality, fight with it, indulge into illusions or cavil at their friends’ comforter words: “Every child has his own developmental rhythm ...” Depending on parents’ attitude about their own children with special needs, the specialists identified the following parents’ types: • • • • • Well-balanced parents – they prove a mature attitude, emotional stability, and they are realistic about the child’s situation; their child could became an independent one (as much as it is possible); Indifferent parents – they are not interested about, they are not emotionally involved, and they reject, ignore or even punish their child; Exaggerated parents – they tend to overprotect their child, and are not offering him / her the opportunity to develop his / her autonomy; Guilty parents – the parents’ feeling is they need to be punished and they are looking for total control of child’s existence; Authoritative parents – they tend to exaggerated control, their rules must be respected, and their child is treated like a “puppet”; 1114 Vocational Counseling Needs for Parents of Children with Disabilities • Inconsequent parents – they are unstable, uncertain, weak, and their child is controlled by different family members; Parents embarrassed by their child – this kind of parents tend to hide their child, are very inflexible and hypocrite; Disappointed parents – they have a very high aspiration level and their child with special needs represent a “disgrace”, a “burden”; so, the child develops feelings like guilt and helplessness; Idealist parents – they refuse to accept reality, and they are looking to demonstrate that their child is “normal”. (A. Gherguţ, 2005, pp. 238 – 284) • • • The Present Study As we can see, not only the children with disabilities have problems, but, sometimes, their own parents need even more help in order to accept their situation, to get over the family’s problems, and develop a strategy for their children’s scholar and social integration (including professional integration). Our first step was to select 20 couples of parents who have children integrated into special schools (exclusive for children with disabilities or who have children integrated into inclusive schools (schools for everybody: “normal children” and children with disabilities). Then, we have organized a focus – group interview with parents to identify, to bring up-to-date and analyze their pressing problems. All our findings represent important arguments that sustain the vocational counseling needs for parents of children with disabilities. Preliminary Results Because our sample is not a representative one, we considered that a qualitative analysis has more appropriated than a quantitative one. As a result of our investigations, we have identified some problems pointed out by parents who have children with disabilities: • There is a lack of early diagnosis service or confusions in diagnosis; sometimes, the pediatrician is not able to correctly select the symptoms and to guide the family to a specialist physician. An early and correct diagnosis, followed by an early and correct therapy could help a child to develop his maximum potential; • Although in every special or inclusive school there are Personalized Intervention Programs for every child, they are not really applied; • There are too many children integrated and very few teachers (specialist in working with children with disabilities; each of the Simona Eftimie, Alina Mărgăriţoiu 1115 specialists is responsible for 8 to 12 integrated children from one or more different schools); • The parents have been complaining about their lack of implication in educational activities of their children in school; there are some parents that want to involve in their children integration process, not just be observers. A mother confessed us: “They were impatiently expecting me to take my child from school and not to talk, or advise me about a continuous educational process from home …”; • There are many unsolved problems of the social interaction kind; for example, parents of children with special needs come up daily against problems like: the absence of environmental adjustments, the absence of specialized employees into clinical and educational environment; • There are no possibilities for spare time and socialization activities: there are no adequate spaces to play. Parents need specialists’ help in order to organize the spare time of their children; • There is no co-ordination between the institutions that are offering their specialized services for children with disabilities: “Every institution reserves itself the right to assume its decisions, but they are suspicious about the help that other specialized institutions can get.”, confesses another of our interviewed parents; • Parents need more spare time for their children; they need to interact more with them, to spend time together, like a true family, and the specialist (counselor or therapist) should be like a family member sometimes; • There are no support groups for parents, except, maybe, the Internet communication – some organizations have created the possibility for parents to share their experience; • Morever, there are so few opportunities for counseling services: for the individual, for couples and for the extended family. Parents need to be listened and informed about the consequences of their child diagnosis; they need to learn how to better respond to their children’s special needs. Individual counseling represents a support process for parents of children with disabilities who need help to identify their problems and to find resources for solving them. It is an absolutely necessary intervention during the rehabilitation process. Counseling for couples represents an advantageous process when both parents of the child became conscious about their need to share relational problems with a specialist. For many parents, when a child with disabilities becomes a member of their family, the life isn’t beautiful or easy any more, so 1116 Vocational Counseling Needs for Parents of Children with Disabilities they need to be helped to get over this situation. When parents and brothers or other family members don’t accept the behavior of a child with disabilities the counseling process for the extended family becomes a necessary one. This process could rebuild family’s communication and emotional balance – absolutely necessary for an adequate environment of a special child. Conclusions If, a long time ago, in Romania the social security system had offered monopoly for some professional categories of individuals with disabilities (for example, the blind people were the only ones who had the right to manufacture a large category of brushes: scrubbing or other types of industrial brushes) today there is no more social security of this type. So it is important to inform, to sensitize and to support the employers in order to help the social and professional integration of people with disabilities. So, this “special individuals” could outrun their condition “as burden for society”. It is also important – for the best vocational orientation of this category of children – that the counselors help parents to satisfy their needs: • • • • • • • • to accept their child with his / her disabilities and the ensuing consequences (the child need more help, more attention and emotional support); they need to be helped to overcome all their specific emotions: shock, denial, guilt, sorrow, rejection and finally, to get to the acceptance reaction; to be involved into the process of education and rehabilitation of their child; to accept their own situation and not to be ashamed about their child in front of society (neighbors, friends etc.); to identify and solve the couple’s problems that have been appeared once the child was born or even before; to facilitate the communication with the authorities (to remove the bureaucratic approaches); to get informed about prevention, diagnosis and early treatment for their child; to be informed about their child’s possibility for school and vocational orientation (kindergartens; elementary, secondary and vocational schools); to analyze and decide about the future child’s career: to make a balance between professional offer, child’s skills and aspirations. Simona Eftimie, Alina Mărgăriţoiu 1117 Limits and future directions of our research There are still a lot of variables that we intend to analyze in our future research stages: • • • • A comparison between the vocational counseling needs for parents of two extreme categories: children with disabilities and exceptional children (who demonstrate exceptional qualities into a specific area); Children with disabilities with both parents and children from a single parent family or parents – child family versus extended family (parents, children, grandparents, aunts etc.); An analysis of the attitude of parents with “normal” children toward inclusive school’s issue; Vocational counseling needs for parents of children with disabilities from urban and rural environment etc. Our next study stage will be to draw up a coherent program addressed both to teachers, parents, counselors and employers in order to improve the cooperation between all that institutions (family, school and employers) for a better vocational orientation and professional integration of children with disabilities. We consider praiseworthy the specialists’ interest for educational and social integration of individuals with disabilities, but it is important, at least for Romania, to inform and to help not only that kind of children and their parents, but teachers, parents of the others children (“normal children”) and community alike. References Biklen, D. (1996), Schools Without Labels: Parents, educators and inclusive education, Temple University Press, Philadelphia. Gherguţ, A. (2005), Sinteze de psihopedagogie specială, Editura Polirom, Iaşi. Gherguţ, A. (2006), Psihopedagogia persoanelor cu cerinţe speciale, Editura Polirom, Iaşi. Oliver, M. (1996), Understanding disability: From Theory to Practice, Macmillan, London. Solity, J., Bickler, G. (1994), Support Services. Issues for education, Health and Social service Professionals, Cassell, London. Trowell, J., Bower, M. (1995), The Emotional Needs of Young Children and Their Families, Routledge, London. http://autismul.wordpress.com Chapter 8 Others A New Scale of Ethical Violations of Faculty Members (EVFM) based on Student Perceptions Gökhan Özaslan, İsmail Şahin, Ömer Beyhan, Ali Murat Sünbül, Selcuk University – Turkey Abstarct Dealing with ethical issues in education has been a crucial topic among the educators worldwide. The aim of our study was to develop an interval-type scale so as to identify undergraduate perceptions of faculty members’ ethical flaws. At the onset of the process, anonymously written qualitative data were gathered from senior students to construct an item pool. The Likert type form of 60 items was piloted on 290 undergraduates. The Cronbach’s alpha results indicated very high levels of internal consistency. And the exploratory factor analysis revealed that the EVFM had one dimensional structure. So as to improve the additivity of quality of the scale, four items below the item-total criterion of .30 and four items which have lower factor loadings than .40 were excluded. The final form of the EVFM has many implications for those who wish to ascertain ethical issues of universities. Key words: Ethical violations, faculty, higher education. It’s a widely accepted belief that faculty members have to be held accountable for how well they serve students. That is why the subject of ethical breaches of faculty which undergraduates suffer from should have been delved into in detail. Nevertheless, there has been no formal assessment on that issue, and now we know very little about it. The importance of the issue of ethics can easily be understood when we have a look at its historical background. In spite of the fact that some civilizations of Far East and Middle East are said to have addressed the subject of ethics, in western civilization, the notion of ethics in the public arena is traced back to the Occidental tradition. When we leaf through the works of Plato and Aristotle we can easily say that the Ancient Greeks developed and refined the concept. The 1122 A New Scale of Ethical Violations of Faculty Members (EVFM) based on Student subject kept its importance and continued to exist throughout history so that great western thinkers like Locke and Kant dwelled on it (Dougherty, 2008). The concept of ethics includes behavioral references and values-based rationale. And ethical practices are actions or behaviors representative of values (Scales, 2002).In our study, ethical principles are conceptualized as general guidelines, ideals or expectations that need to be taken into account in university teaching (Murray, Gillese, Lennon, Mercer and Robinson, 1996). And ethics failure can be defined as any act that results in harm to others. The essential element of ethics failure is intentionality. Ethics failure takes its sources from some degree of malice or negligence of mentally competent actors (Zajac, 1996). In business world it was understood that unless it is regarded as a valued component of an organization, written form of code of ethics is not sufficient to create an ethical organization. The solution can be recruiting and retaining ethical personnel who can instill ethical values in other members of the organization. At this juncture higher education institutions with their graduates can be considered as the most available source for such personnel (ProcarioFoley and Bean, 2002). So, it is apparent that academic institutions should instill ethic values in students. In order to reach that goal, universities should employ teaching faculty who can model the ethical behavior and personify the values of the institution (Woo, 2003; Saat, Jamaln and Othman, 2004). When we look that matter from this point, we can say that for most of the students the higher education institutions are the places where they come face to face with the realities of citizenship and its moral boundaries (Bruhn, 2008). In that atmosphere, faculty members play important roles in their relationships with students such as research supervisor, instructor, and mentor. Also, the faculty has a great influence on the ethical climate of the university (Schulte, Brown and Wise, 1991). However, as Langlais (2006) emphasized, according to recent studies and reports, the level of misconduct, inappropriate behavior, fraud, and gross misconduct is increasing in all areas of scholarly and professional activities. It is a tough job to create an ethical environment in academia because of its complex internal environment and decentralized power structure (Guelcher and Cahalane,1999). The universities which have ethics review boards are very few in number. And the result of the lack of explicit support to guide employee behavior is the erosion of the stated values of institutions (Kelley, Agle and DeMott, 2005). Concerns about inappropriate behaviors in campuses may lessen public trust and harm on institutional reputations of universities (Trevino and Ball, 1992). A review of the past studies will elaborate more on the expectations from faculty members. A group of researchers (Murray, Gillese, Lennon, Mercer and Robinson, 1996) formulated a set of basic ethical principles that define the Gökhan Özaslan, İsmail Şahin, Ömer Beyhan, Ali Murat Sünbül 1123 professional responsibilities of university professors in their role as a teacher. Their list of principles was also cited in faculty and staff handbooks of some universities (e.g. University of Manitoba, University of South Florida) to communicate their expectations to its employees. It declares ethical codes under nine headings; 1) Content competence (maintaining high level of subject matter), 2) Pedagogical competence (being aware of alternative instructional methods or strategies), 3) Sensitive topics (being open and positive dealing with discomforting matters), 4) Student development (making contribution to student development and avoiding exploitation and discrimination), 5) Dual relationships (avoiding dual-role relationships with students), 6) Confidentiality (releasing the information about students only with their consent), 7) Respect for Colleagues (respecting the dignity of her colleagues), 8) Valid assessment (grading the students’ performance in a valid, open, fair way), and 9) Respect for Institution (respecting the goals, policies and standards of the institution). Some of the universities’ unwillingness to create explicit ethical codes may arise from the fear that there can be troubles when -for example- a faculty member’s professional code and a university’s code conflicts. Such kind of incongruence between faculty values and university code requirements may constitute severe problems (Orzack & Simcoe, 1982; cited in Kelley et al, 2005). Ethics failures occur in the institutions where the members have difficulty in realizing their goals and have little or no institutional support. And they are often the result of a sustained period of value conflict resulting in frustration and anger (Bruhn, 2008). When it comes to the example of universities, owing to the fact that only research and scholarly publication is deemed valuable, teaching decrease in value and becomes secondary in the eyes of university management and lecturers themselves (Saat, Jamaln and Othman, 2004). In their extensive literature review Kelley et al. (2005) listed the other causes of ethical lapses such as putting needs above honesty, vague parameters around ethical misbehavior, lack of training on ethical behavior. Bruhn (2008) reviewed the literature on common ethics failures in academia and enumerated them as follows: being late for class, using vulgarity, showing favoritism towards students, sexism, sexual harassment, racism, inappropriately using campus resources, plagiarizing, engaging in dual relationships with students, failing to uphold administrative duties, and refusing to uphold responsibilities of teaching and research. Morgan and Korschgen (2001) analyzed the differences in professors’ and undergraduate students’ perceptions of the ethicalness of faculty behavior. The results of the study revealed that faculty deemed accepting a textbook rebate, ensuring popularity with an easy test and using profanity in lectures as more 1124 A New Scale of Ethical Violations of Faculty Members (EVFM) based on Student unethical that did the undergraduates. And the undergraduates regarded failing to update notes as more unethical than did the faculty. In another study (Scales, 2002) ethical beliefs and behaviors of full-time community college faculty was investigated. The only items that did not receive a majority rating by the survey participants as unethical and thus considered ethical were: 1) Using school resources to publish an external document, 2) Teaching full time while working another job at least 20 hours a week, 3) Hugging a student, 4) Accepting an inexpensive gift from a student (worth less that 5$), 5) Teaching in a setting lacking adequate ethnic diversity among the faculty, 6) Teaching ethics or values to students, and 7) Encouraging competition among students. When we have a look at the literature on ethical breaches in university, we can see that the undergraduates are almost always the chief source of perception. According to Seldin (1993), the reason that evaluations of teachers have become so popular is that they are easy to administer and to score. However it brings along a disadvantage, they are easy to abuse. Seldin (1993) states that “Research and experience have showed us, for example, that student ratings should never be the sole basis for evaluating teaching effectiveness. There is much more to teaching than what is evaluated on student rating forms. The best way that I know of to get at both the complexity an individuality of teaching is the teaching portfolio, which also is becoming increasingly popular around the country.” Since faculty play a significant role in defining appropriate professional behavior for students, a close examination of their ethical beliefs and behaviors is critical (Scales, 2002), concordantly, Tabachnick et al.(1991) states, “A crucial aspect of the maturation and moral development of any profession is the collective openness and dedication of its membership to study and critically examine itself ”. Yet, the empirical data about universities ethical climate and behavior is limited (Kelley, Agle and DeMott, 2005). As a first step to meet that need, the purpose of this study was to develop a measure based on the undergraduates’ perceptions on ethical flaws. Method At the onset of the development process of EVFM the authors were in need of a sort of exploration so as to come to a deeper understanding of the nature and scope of the problem. To that end, the participants, who were senior undergraduates of the faculty of education, were all given sheets of blank paper and asked to recall the ethical flaws of faculty. This should be noted that the anecdotes were not only from Selcuk University but also were from other universities they have heard about. Then, the authors independently reviewed all papers and a long list of themes generated. Next, a very comprehensive item Gökhan Özaslan, İsmail Şahin, Ömer Beyhan, Ali Murat Sünbül 1125 pool reflecting those themes was constructed. Finally, through item reduction for redundancy, a final list of 60 items was obtained. Items in the scale were placed on a 5 point scale, ranging from “I have never seen it” (1) to “I’ve seen it very often” (5). There is no item which is in a reverse direction. Thus, an “I have never seen it” answer signified a lack of an ethical flaw. That form was piloted on 290 students from the faculties of Education and Vocational Education. In the pilot application, questions about demographic characteristics were not included so as to assure the participants that anonymity would be safeguarded. Results Only one case was excluded from the total of 290 cases. The statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 13.00 for Windows. At the significance level of .0001, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .964. Such a high level of internal consistency indicated that, the respondents regarded the items in the scale as coherent. So as to improve the additivity of quality of the scale, 4 items below the item-total criterion of .30 were excluded (Paying compliments to female students that is unwanted by them/Sexually harassing a student by physical contact/Encouraging students to absenteeism in classrooms which are crowded and hard to control/Having an intimate relationship with a student). After the exclusion of the four items, an exploratory factor analysis was performed to investigate the underlying structure of the EVFM. If the approximate sample size is 300, the reliability of factor analysis can be considered “good” (Mertler and Vannatta, 2002). Moreover, the Kaiser–Meyer– Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy was .936 while Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was 10208 (df = 1540, P < .01), which further confirmed the appropriateness of the data for factor analysis. Again, four items which have lower factor loadings than .40 were also excluded (Using profanity in classroom/Constantly talking about her political beliefs thanks to her position in classroom/Setting the students at loggerheads by talking about political issues in classroom/Finishing the lesson before time). Finally, the principal axis factor analysis with varimax rotation was employed. The results indicated that the EVFM had a one dimensional structure. Table 1 presents the final form of the EVFM with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, item means, standard deviations and factor loadings for the scale. 1126 A New Scale of Ethical Violations of Faculty Members (EVFM) based on Student Mean Std. Dev. ItemTotal Correlatio Factor Loadings Table 1: Final Form of the EVFM with Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients, Item means, Standard Deviations and factor loadings 1. Forcing students to buy her own books. 2.19 1.25 .403 .414 2. Forcing students to buy some books with the aim of gaining money. 1.96 1.22 .431 .439 3. Utilizing literature reviews of a student without mentioning her name. 1.81 1.21 .542 .560 4. Forcing students to allocate time to extracurricular activities. 1.81 1.36 .480 .511 5. Forcing students to work for the revolving fund of the Faculty. 1.94 1.61 .453 .506 6. Talking slangy in classroom. 2.15 1.14 .490 .507 7. Gossiping about a faculty member without mentioning her name. 1.84 1.07 .512 .523 8. Secretly gathering information from a student about the others. 1.96 1.34 .614 .632 9. Disregarding students’ expectations. 3.09 1.45 .693 .718 10. Talking about her personal problems in classroom. 2.01 1.18 .597 .617 11. Boasting too much. 2.62 1.33 .565 .589 12. Making offensive jokes. 2.43 1.28 .660 .683 13. Constantly mentioning the level difference between students. 2.36 1.40 .558 .587 14. Criticizing another faculty without mentioning her name implying who she is. 2.20 1.27 .531 .546 15. Violating the rules that are compulsory for students. (e.g. using cell phones during class) 2.64 1.43 .619 .644 16. Being rude to a student who comes to her office. 1.98 1.27 .639 .667 17. Degrading a student in front of the class. 2.64 1.37 .607 .638 18. Showing favoritism to students who have the same political beliefs as her. 2.17 1.40 .509 .517 19. Turning a blind eye to the tardiness of students whom she favors. 2.03 1.25 .587 .596 ACTION 1127 Mean Std. Dev. ItemTotal Correlatio Factor Loadings Gökhan Özaslan, İsmail Şahin, Ömer Beyhan, Ali Murat Sünbül 20. Making greater effort for some students than for the others. 2.55 1.49 .666 .688 21. Giving higher grades to her favorite students. 2.73 1.54 .715 .734 22. Setting her favorite students free from respecting her rules. 2.29 2.19 .432 .450 23. Criticizing students because of their way of dressing. 2.08 1.28 .627 .646 24. Giving higher grades to her favorite students. 2.43 1.50 .692 .702 25. Being more tolerant towards students from opposite sex. 1.88 1.28 .613 .635 26. Turning a blind eye to cheating of those whom she favors. 1.81 1.19 .484 .487 27. Turning a blind eye to absenteeism of those whom she favors. 1.97 1.33 .579 .589 1.58 1.01 .388 .402 29. Being indifferent to cheating etc. while being very strict in his own exams. 1.74 1.10 .505 .511 30. Spending class time through activities irrelevant to the topic (e.g. reading newspaper, book, logging into internet etc). 1.50 .98 .497 .517 31. Distance herself from some students due to their ethnical origin. 1.64 1.11 .451 .457 32. Neglecting upgrading herself. 2.66 1.46 .524 .540 33. Using audio-visual aids to reduce teaching work. 2.36 1.48 .604 .637 34. Teaching without mastery. 2.67 1.44 .643 .670 35. Reacting against criticism on her performance. 2.64 1.57 .735 .765 36. Having students responsible for teaching to class instead of teaching the subject herself. 2.06 1.34 .606 .632 37. Being late to class 2.42 1.29 .516 .528 38. Inadequately supervising the student who needs it. 2.06 1.49 .634 .661 39. Not to teach lesson in a planned way. 2.50 1.39 .654 .677 40. Not to allow students to reflect their understanding into 2.39 1.43 .705 .730 ACTION 28. Discrimination based countrymanship etc. on affinity, fellow- 1128 Mean Std. Dev. ItemTotal Correlatio Factor Loadings A New Scale of Ethical Violations of Faculty Members (EVFM) based on Student 41. Going back on her words. 2.29 1.35 .674 .699 42. Grading the written assignments without reading them. 2.50 1.47 .485 .498 43. Filling in time through activities irrelevant to the topic. 1.70 1.09 .512 .522 44. Despairing of students who got low grades and making them feel it. 2.27 1.47 .653 .677 45. Grading exam papers without reading them. 2.14 1.34 .411 .416 46. Threatening students with hard examinations. 2.71 1.58 .671 .699 47. Ignoring the legal rights of students. 2.50 1.53 .769 .796 48. Reacting against a student who just claims her legal rights. 2.84 1.54 .776 .804 49. Punishing the whole class because of only one student. 2.63 1.46 .662 .691 50. When supervising in the examinations, acting in a way that results in decreased exam performance. 2.61 1.40 .557 .578 51. Asking exam questions which are not related to aim and content of the lesson. 2.07 1.26 .617 .635 52. Making difficulties for a student who wants to control her marked exam paper. 2.66 1.52 .672 .699 ACTION the lesson. Conclusion The present research is only the first step of a long way of ascertaining the ethical flaws of Turkish faculty members. And it has several limitations arising from time pressure, such as the lack of tests on the correlation of the EVFM with measures of similar constructs. Nevertheless, the measure presented in this study was shown to be internally consistent and appropriate for factor analysis. So it seems logical to assume that –especially in the phase of item generationthe EVFM can be regarded as a basis for those who wish to delve into the issue of ethics for a specific institution of higher education. References Bruhn, J.G. (2008) Value Dissonance and Ethics Failure in Academia: A Causal Connection? Journal of Academic Ethics. Volume 6, Number 1. 17-32. Gökhan Özaslan, İsmail Şahin, Ömer Beyhan, Ali Murat Sünbül 1129 Dougherty, M. J. (2008) The Cost of Being Ethical. Retrieved from http://www.spaef.com/GVER_PUB/v2n3_dougherty.html. Guelcher, S. J. and J. J. Cahalane: (1999) The Challenge of Developing Ethics Programs in Institutions of Higher Learning, Business and Society Review 104, 325–346. Kelley, P. C., Agle, B. R. and DeMott, J. (2005) Mapping our Progress: Identifying, Categorizing and Comparing Universities’ Ethics Infrastructures. Journal of Academic Ethics. Volume 3, Numbers 2-4. 205-229. Langlais, P. J. (2006). Ethics for the next generation. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 52(19). Metler, C.A. and Vannatta R.A. (2002). Advanced and Multivariate Statistical Methods. Los Angles: Pyrczak Publishing. Morgan, B.L. and Korschgen, A.J. (2001). The Ethics of Faculty Behaviour: Students’ And Professors’ Views. College Student Journal, Sept. 2001. Vol. 35 Issue 3. Murray, H., Gillese, E., Lennon, M., Mercer, P. and Robinson, M. (1996) Ethical Principles in University Teaching. Ontario: Society for Teaching an Learning in Higher Education. Procario-Foley, E.G. and Bean, D. F. (2002) Institutions of Higher Education: Cornerstones in Building Ethical Organizations. Teaching Busines Ethics. Volume 6, Number 1. 101-116. Saat, M. M., Jamaln, M., and Othman, A. (2004) Lecturers’ and Students’ Perceptions on Ethics in Academia and Lecturer-Student Interactıon. Malaysia: Research Management Centre Universiti Teknologi. Scales, R.F. (2002). Ethics of Teaching: Beliefs and Behaviours of Community College Faculty. PhD Dissertation. University of North Texas. Schulte, L.E., Brown, R.D. and Wise, S.L. (1991). The Development And Validation Of The Ethical Climate Index For Graduate And Professional School Programs. Research In Higher Education. Seldin, P. (1993), "The use and abuse of student ratings of professors", The Chronicle of Higher Education, pp.A40. 1130 A New Scale of Ethical Violations of Faculty Members (EVFM) based on Student Tabachnick, B.G., Keith-Spiegel, P. and Pope, K. S. (1991). Ethics of teaching: Beliefs and behaviors of psychologists as educators. American Psychologist, 46, 506–515. Trevino, L. K. and Ball G. A. (1992). The social implications of punishing unethical behavior: observers’ cognitive and affective reactions. Journal of Management, 18(4), 751- 766. Woo, C. Y. (2003). Personally responsible, BizEd May/June 2003, 22Y27. Zajac, G. (1996). Beyond Hammurabi: A public service definition of ethics failure. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 6, 145– 190. An Examination of Freshmen’s Expectations from and Disappointments of College Education İsa Korkmaz, Selcuk University – Turkey Abstract After graduation from high school, all students have to take the University Entrance Examination to have college education. In order to get enough point from the University Entrance Examination, students have to prepare very rigorously during secondary education. When they get admission from a university, they think they do not have to study so much because they believe they get over the most difficult part of their education. Their unmotivated situation worries their professors. This lessens the professors’ eagerness to teach them. The aim of this study was to determine freshmen’s expectations from and disappointments of college education. In order to investigate the research question, four sub-questions were used. A) What do the students expect and what do they find regarding methods of teaching? B) What do they dream about social life in the college? C) What do they fancy about general atmosphere of university? D) What are they most disappointed with? The subjects of the study were 205 freshmen at College of Education of Selcuk University. In order to collect data, four open-ended questions were asked. The students expressed their opinions on a form. Results indicated that students thought that they did not have to study so much and they did not have to attend the courses at university. On the other hand, they expected to find more social activities. Key words: Freshmen’s expectations, disappointments, and social life in the college Turkish education system is heavily test-oriented. Tests in the K-12 levels are divided in two levels. The first one is in primary education the students at the ends of six, seven, and eight grades have to take a test (the exam for level determination). Cumulative points of these tests are used to admit students into what kind of high school. Another one is taken by all students after graduation 1132 An Examination of Freshmen’s Expectations from and Disappointments of College from high school. Students are placed at universities according to the score they get in the University Entrance Examination. Students in Turkey are burdened with rigorous homeworks and test preparation events in school and extracurricular activities out of school. On weekdays, schools follow double time table as morning group and afternoon group because schools do not have enough classrooms to serve all students at the same time. Morning group starts at approximately 7:00 a.m. and the students get home after 1:00 p.m.; afternoon group starts at about 1:00 p.m. and the students get home around 7:00 p.m. After or before school, students attend tutoring sessions, training courses for various contests, or test preparation events at private study centers from very early grades (four or five). In fact, students at K-12 levels spend most of their time memorizing facts and responding multiple choice tests. Therefore, students are simply too busy to engage in extracurricular activities for moral, social, emotional, and physical development. The goals of education were synthesized into eight broad categories: basic academic skills, critical thinking and problem solving, social skills and work ethic, citizenship, physical health, emotional health, the art and literature, preparation for skilled employment (Rothstein, Wilder, and Jacobsen, 2007). Test-oriented education concentrates heavily on preparing students for test. In fact, test-oriented education may not facilitate to reach all educational goals. Test-oriented education is blamed for lack of moral, social, emotional, physical, and work-oriented education (Zhao, 2007). However, Goodlad (1979) viewed that public education should educate the whole child and avoid rote teaching that may raise test scores but fail to produce healthy, fulfilled, and participating citizens (cited in Rothstein, Wilder, and Jacobsen, 2007). The best teachers know how to respond to student choices and integrate students’ interests into a curriculum with high standards. Teaching to student interests automatically facilitates differentiated instruction and leads to improved test scores (Caine & Caine, 2006). Since only about one-fifth of high school graduates are admitted to Turkish universities each year, The University Entrance Exams have an intense pressure on students, parents, and educational policy makers. When Turkish students come to college, they are winners of competitive education. Test-oriented education causes competition. Students learn competitively, cooperatively, and independently. Competitive teaching entails failure of some students so that others can succeed. Furthermore, it was revealed that the quality of work was poorer under competitive condition. Creative problem solving was similarly hampered by competition in a study of undergraduates (cited in Kohn, 1986). Students’ motivation and mind-set toward academic achievement can affect how well they will do in school (Price, 2008). Competitive teaching is in favour of extrinsic motivation rather than intrinsic motivation. It was concluded that İsa Korkmaz 1133 extrinsic rewards reduce intrinsic motivation. Reduce intrinsic motivation produces achievement deficits (Kahn, 1993). Deci’s (1985) study indicated that the use of extrinsic motivators actually tends to undermine intrinsic motivation and thus adversely affect performance in the long run. On the other hand, we destroy the…love of learning in children, which is so strong when they are small, by encouraging and compelling them to work for pretty and contemptible rewards (cited in Kohn, 1986). Most students arrive on college campuses with high hopes. The first weeks on campus will probably have a significant influence on the entire college experience. Regardless of whether they are positive or negative, expectations play a crucial role in the adjustment of the student to the college environment (cited in Edwards, Cangemi, and Kowalski, 2001). When freshmen come to university, they like to celebrate their victory meanwhile they try to accustom themselves to college life. Since they gain college admission after very harsh procedures, they ask themselves as following: Is it worth devoting whole life to prepare college? Does what I found at college meet what I have expected? The aim of this study was to determine freshmen’s expectations from and disappointments of college education. In order to investigate the research question, four sub-questions were used. A) What do the students expect and what do they find regarding methods of teaching? B) What do they dream about social life in the college? C) What do they fancy about general atmosphere of university? D) What are they most disappointed with? Method In order to collect data for this study, a questionnaire, which consisted of four open-ended questions, was developed and administered to 205 freshmen at College of Education of Selcuk University. They were asked to write their opinions related to each question. The open-ended format of the questionnaire calls for a free response in the participants’ own words. It also provides for a greater depth of response. The respondents revealed their frame of reference and possible the reasons for their responses (Best &Kahn, 1989). 1134 An Examination of Freshmen’s Expectations from and Disappointments of College Results I. What do the students expect and what do they find regarding methods of teaching? Table 1: Expectations about teaching methods Rank Statements F 1 I expected that methods of teaching in classes were different from high school’s. 71 2 I thought that I would not need to study. 51 3 Courses in university did not challenge me so, my motivation for study was diminished. 41 4 I thought that attendance was not required. 20 5 I expected to find the classrooms in better condition. 20 6 I expected to have high qualified teachers in university. 13 7 I did not have any dream about university. 6 Total 222 Table 1 indicates freshmen’s expectations about teaching methods at university. When freshmen were in high school, they had expectations and dreams about university. First of all, they expected that methods of teaching in university level were different from high school level. Teaching methods were supposed to be student centered. Students were supposed to be motivated to discuss different opinions, inquire, criticize and apply knowledge. Students were supposed to encourage taking responsibility for their learning. Freshmen’s another expectation was about study for courses. They thought that they would not need study for courses as much as high school courses. They had already done great job through getting university admission. Turkish youths believe that entering university is much more difficult than being in university. On the other hand, some freshmen felt that they were not challenged by university courses. Therefore, they lost their enthusiasm. Some freshmen did not expect that they would have to attend classes, because they thought that attending classes was a leisure time activity. II. What do they dream about social life in the college? Table 2 indicates freshmen’s social life expectation from university. Most of social activities took place on university campus. The faculty of education is not situated on the university campus. In fact, students do not benefit from some social activities that are placed on the campus. When freshmen were in high school, they postponed all social activities because they had to study heavily to 1135 İsa Korkmaz be able to get admission to university. They expected to compensate undoing activities of their life. Table 2: Expectations about social life Rank Statements F 1 Faculty did not benefit from some social activities of the university. 85 2 I expected to have several social activities. 71 3 I did not have any dream about social activities in university. 28 4 I am glad to have my own social life at university 14 5 Social life in university is misconception and it forced borders. 13 6 I met friends from different cultures and life styles. 6 7 Physical facilities are limited. 5 Total 222 III. What do they fancy about general atmosphere of university? Table 3 indicates freshmen’s dream about atmosphere of university. Some freshmen complained about the quality of university education. The content of courses and teaching methods did not satisfy freshmen, because university was an ivory tower for them. Other complaint was lack of freedom at university. Some freshmen had bad experiences such as being warned because of their life styles, appearances, and behaviors. On the other hand, some freshmen had difficulties in finding close friends and communicating with their teachers. Freshmen had very high expectation about friendship and teachers before coming to university. Lastly, freshmen complained about conditions of buildings and classrooms. Some of them expressed that physical condition of their high school buildings and classrooms were much better than university. During the time this study had been done, university had been constructing new buildings and classrooms. Recently the university has had new facilities and new buildings. 1136 An Examination of Freshmen’s Expectations from and Disappointments of College Table 3: Expectations about university atmosphere Rank Statements F 1 I expected to have high effective education from university. 50 2 I expected to experience a free atmosphere. 46 3 I expected to have more social activities. 34 4 I expected to have good friendship. 30 5 I expected to have nicer buildings and classrooms. 29 6 I expected to have better relationship with teacher. 15 7 To me, atmosphere of university is good enough. 15 8 I did not have any dream about atmosphere of university. 13 9 I thought that attending classes was not compulsory. 9 Total 241 IV. What are they most disappointed with? Table 4 indicates freshmen’s disappointment about university. All statements in table 4 have been explained above. It is unnecessary to repeat similar discussions here. Table 4: Disappointments of freshmen Rank Statements F 1 Methods of teaching 65 2 Inefficient buildings and classrooms 47 3 Lack of social activities 45 4 University is not different from high school. 33 5 Attitudes of teachers and relationship between teachers and students. 31 6 I am not disappointed. 27 7 I could not find close friends. 27 8 Requirements of attending courses. 14 9 Lack of free atmosphere 8 Total 297 Conclusion and Discussions To get admission from universities in Turkish society is extremely exaggerated. Parents and youths concentrate on exclusively entering university regardless academic level. This goal could be described as “to be or not to be”. All Turkish students at primary and secondary educations are motivated to achieve a final main goal. Winners become very happy and losers miserable. On İsa Korkmaz 1137 the other hand, winners’ parents are proud of their kids and losers feel that they are ashamed of themselves and their families. In fact, all activities in schools are based on tests which assess only basic academic skills ignoring critical thinking and problem solving, social skills and work ethic, citizenship, physical health, emotional health, the art and literature, preparation for skilled employment. This situation violates whole child policy and may cause to create restless society. When winners come to university, they feel that they have already attained their lifelong goal. Therefore, they do not need to study anymore and they are exhausted. They are not aware of seriousness of academic study at university. This study revealed three crucial results as following: Students in university do not need to study so hard. Students do not need to attend lectures, and university hosts several social activities. Having this kind of perceptions are major obstacles to improve students intellectual development in higher education. These facts are the results of test-oriented education. Similar findings are observed in Chinese education. Many students have lost their happy childhoods, the room for self-development, and the ability to develop diverse abilities due to the excessive amount of homework, too many tests and exams, too little physical activity, and too few opportunities for interactions with society (cited in Zhao, 2007). References Best, J. W. & Kahn, J. V. (1989). Research in Education. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Caine, R. N. & Caine, G. (2006). The Way We Learn. Educational Leadership, 64(1), 50-54. Edwards, M. & Cangemi, J. P. and Kowalski, C. J. (2001). The College Dropout and Institutional Responsibility. Education, 111(1), 107-116. Kohn, A. (1986). No Contest: The Case Against Competition (Revised Edition). New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Kohn, A. (1993). Punished by Rewards: The Trouble with Gold Stars, Incentive Plains, A’s, Praise, and Other Bribes. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Price, H. B. (2008). Mobilizing the Community to Help Students Succeed. Alexandria, VA. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Rothstein, R. & Wilder, T., and Jacobsen, R. (2007). Balance in the Balance. Educational Leadership, 64(8), 8-14. 1138 An Examination of Freshmen’s Expectations from and Disappointments of College Zhao, Y. (2007). China and the Whole Child. Educational Leadership, 64(8), 70-73. An Evaluation of Principals’ Effectiveness as the Leader of Guidance Services at Schools Mustafa Yavuz, Selcuk University – Turkey Fatih Yılmaz, Teacher – Turkey Murat Önal, Adem Küçük, School Principal – Turkey Abstract The aim of the research is to assess principals in carrying out their duties related to the Guidance and Counseling Services in primary schools. The results show that members’ opinions differ from the level of execution of principals’ duties. School principals are most successful in creating the committee and assigning posts to the committee. However, committee members find the school principals less competent in the relations with the manager of education in the district and the members. The population of the research is formed by the members of Guidance and Counseling Execution Committee in primary schools in Konya and Aksaray in 2007-2008 educational years. In the second term of 2007-2008 educational year research data were collected using a fivefold Likert scale called “Evaluating Primary School Managers’ Executive Role in Guidance Services Scale” which was created using the 14th article of Guidance and Counseling Service Regulations. Key words: Principals’ effectiveness, Guidance services, Evaluation Introduction Actually, the modern school counsellor is characterized by his restless desire to explore and master, with a constantly greater economy of means, a more sensitive and heightened understanding of counsellor behaviour which will facilitate the personal development of students (Jackson, Shertzer, 1969), which 1140 An Evaluation of Principals’ Effectiveness as the Leader of Guidance Services at Schools can only be achieved if teachers and guidance counsellors really ought to know what is going on in students’ minds (Leroux, 1989). The American School Counselors Association (ASCA) views the primary goal of a school counseling program as enhancing student learning through student development. Student development is comprised of three areas that encompass a variety of student learning competencies. According to Stelzer the three areas of student development are: Academic development, Career development, personal/social development. On the other hand, according to the Turkish Ministry of Education goals of guidance and counseling activities include: 1. Helping students to recognize and accept their mental, emotional and bodily characteristics, 2. Acquiring the skills needed to create healthy relations with people and building a positive attitude towards life, 3. Recognizing opportunities for their personal development, educational chances in or out of the school, jobs, business life and expectations of society, 4. Gaining confidence and competency in life, skills like setting goal, solving problem, making decision and taking responsibilities, 5. Creating a world view by evaluating their lives as a whole, 6. Choosing universities and jobs appropriate for them considering the society, 7. Making better use of their free times and working for pleasure, 8. Helping them to be individuals having scientific thinking, creativity, tolerance, love, democratic stand and behavior, and being respectful to human rights and being well-adjusted to the society. It is always helpful to bear in mind that while planning guidance services for individual’s growth and adaptation based on the aims and principles above, we should know individual’s educational background, characteristics of his/her growth, needs, expectations and problems (Collins, 2004). However, one should always bear in mind that the success of the guidance program depends on the principal’s establishment of a framework which will ensure the smooth transition between guidance activities (Chiristensen, 1949). According to the 45th article of Guidance and Counseling Services Regulations of Ministry of Education, in primary schools as well as all in educational levels, a guidance and counseling execution committee is assembled to plan guidance and counseling services, to create coordination and cooperation within the organization. Guidance and Counseling Services Execution Committee consists of the member below under the chairmanship of the principal. Mustafa Yavuz, Fatih Yılmaz, Murat Önal, Adem Küçük 1141 a. Vice-Principals, b. Counselors from Guidance and Counseling Service, c. At least one representative teacher from each class level from the primary level, d. A representative from the Discipline Committee e. One representative from parent school community and one representative from school conservation association, f. A student representative Principal’s presiding over Guidance and Counseling Services Execution Commission makes him/her the sole responsible to carry out these services. Therefore, principals’ carrying out that mission is very important, especially in primary schools. Aim of the Research The aim of the research is to assess principals in carrying out their duties related to the Guidance and Counseling Services in primary schools. Problem Does the level of principals’ carrying out Guidance and Counseling Services in primary schools differ from the Guidance Execution Committee members? Is there a meaningful relation between the level of principals’ carrying out Guidance and Counseling Services in primary schools and the Guidance Execution Committee members? Method Population and Sampling The population of the research is formed by the members of Guidance and Counseling Execution Committee in primary schools in Konya and Aksaray in 2007-2008 educational years. The samples chosen with random sampling method, who are 17 vice-principals, 15 school counselors, 143 primary level teachers (grades 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are primary; grades 6, 7, 8 are secondary levels), 106 secondary level teachers, 21 school-parent community members and 19 student representatives. Data Gathering Tool In the second term of 2007-2008 educational year research data were collected using a fivefold Likert scale called “Evaluating Primary School Managers’ Executive Role in Guidance Services Scale” which was created using the 14th article of Guidance and Counseling Service Regulations. For the 1142 An Evaluation of Principals’ Effectiveness as the Leader of Guidance Services at Schools scale no further validity study was conducted since it only consisted of the principals’ roles given by Guidance and Counseling Service Regulation and it just studied principals’ fulfilling their duties given by the Regulation. For data analysis SPSS was used. Cronbach's α consistency criterion was used to determine the scale’s consistency. The result for Cronbach's α came up to be = .94. Findings and Comments Table 1: Kruskall Wallis results according to the roles that Guidance and Counseling Execution Committee members expect from school principals. Members N Mean Rank Assistant Principal 17 165.26 School supervisor 15 157.73 Branch supervisor teacher (1-5. classroom) 143 144.94 Branch supervisor teacher (6-8. classroom) 106 161.61 Deputy of School-parent committee 21 221.02 Deputy of School-student committee 19 210.89 df X² P 5 18.69 .002 Kruskall Wallis results are given above according to the roles that Guidance and Counseling Execution Committee members expect from school principals. The results show that members’ opinions differ from the level of execution of principals’ duties. [ X² (5) = 18.69, p<.05 ]. Considering the mean ranks of the committee members, school-parent community has the highest averages and school representatives, vice-principals, teachers of 6, 7, 8th grades, and school guidance counselors follow it respectively. Teachers of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th grades have the lowest averages. When the results are examined, it seems interesting that school-parent community representative perceived the level of school principals’ carrying out guidance services higher than other members although they have less interaction with principals. This may result from the fact that school-parent community representatives don’t have enough knowledge of principals’ duties. The fact that teachers of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th grades perceive their principals as less competent in carrying out the guidance services shows that guidance and counseling services are not common in 1st to 5th grades. This could be an indication of the fact that these services are mostly intended for 6th to 8th grades who will sit for exams. 1143 Mustafa Yavuz, Fatih Yılmaz, Murat Önal, Adem Küçük Table 2: Principals’ Realization of Their Duties Related to Guidance and Counseling Services. According to Guidance and Counseling Execution Committee members’ Evaluation, Principals’ Carrying out the Duties of Guidance and Counseling. X S 1. School management has assigned a councellor teacher to each class in 4.47 cooperation with school councelling service. .85 2. School Management has founded the commission of executing school 4.29 councelling 1.10 3. School management has prepared school guidance and counseling 4.13 execution committee 1.10 4. School management takes the necessary precautions to make primary 4.05 school regulations to run smoothly. .95 5. School management requests the record of students coming from other 4.02 schools. .97 6. School management presides over school guidance and counseling 4.00 services execution committee. 1.10 7. School management makes sure that the annual plan prepared by guidance and counseling service and the necessary information on 3.93 execution studies is sent to the guidance center it is responsible to. 1.00 8. School management attaches importance to keeping records of student 3.91 guidance studies. .96 9. School management creates the necessary coordination between 3.88 guidance service, class teacher, parents and students. 1.05 10. School management plans and controls the student professional studies. 3.86 1.01 11. School management regularly controls the annual plan of guidance and 3.83 counseling services execution committee. 1.08 12. School management creates the necessary coordination between 3.78 guidance service, class teachers, parents and students 1.08 13. School management prepares the physical conditions necessary to 3.67 conduct guidance services. 1.19 14. School management makes coordination for school guidance and 3.62 counseling services with the district educational management office. 1.07 When the data in table 2 are analyzed, school principals are most successful in creating the committee and assigning posts to the committee. However, committee members find the school principals less competent in the relations with the manager of education in the district and the members. From the evaluations of the committee members, we can assume that school principals are really successful in making RPDK, but are not equally successful in carrying out the duties. According to the research “The duties expected from school principals and the level of execution” done by Yavuz, 2006, this result shows 1144 An Evaluation of Principals’ Effectiveness as the Leader of Guidance Services at Schools inspectors’, principals’ and vice-principals’ duties of “creating an effective guidance and counseling committee” in lower levels. Conclusion and Recommendations Coefficiency factor applied in passing to secondary education is of great significance in guidance and psychological steps to be taken in such a period when student pass from primary education to childhood and from childhood to adulthood. Therefore, school principals play an important role in carrying out these activities. It has occured that the expectations of class councellor teachers especially of 1-5th grades about the implementation of councelling services by the school principals have been inefficient as with other council members. Moreover, during the process of constituting the council, while the principals are considered to be more competent, there isn’t enough interaction between the other schools. The guidance activities which will be done in primary schools, in which students are more dependent, are very important in terms of students’ pschological development. 1. Making In-Service training seminars will be very useful in order for principals to carry out the guidance activities more active. 2. Guidance and Counseling Services must also be given to primary school students 3. The effort shown while creating School Guidance and Counseling Services Execution Committee should also be shown while executing the services. 4. A more efficient communicative situation among the committe members and school teachers should be created. 5. It would be very helpful to include kinder garden teachers in the school committe. References Alhossaini, M. (N.D.). The Role of the School Counsellor Within Gifted and Talented Elementary Students in the Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia. Accessed: July 25, 2008 http://www.ecls.ncl.ac.uk/publish/text/ The%20Role%20of%20the%20School%20ALHOSSAINI%20approved. pdf Christensen, T. E. (1949). Responsibilities of the High-School Principal in the Guidance Program. The School Review 57(3). Collins, U. (2004). Managing the School Guidance Service.Accessed: July 25, 2008. http://www.ncge.ie/handbook_docs Mustafa Yavuz, Fatih Yılmaz, Murat Önal, Adem Küçük 1145 Gündüz, B. (2006). Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik. Ankara: Tek Ağaç Eylül Yayıncılık Hayes, G. B. (2001). Group Counseling in Schools: Effective or Not?. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 21(3). Stelzer, T. (2003). A Critical Analysis of The Function of Guidance Councelors. Accessed: 26 July 2008, http://www.uwstout.edu/lib/thesis/2003 /2003stelzert.pdf Jackson, R. Shertzer, B. (1969). School Counselling in America and England. Comparative Education 5(2). Kara, M. K. (2006). “İlköğretim Kurumlarında Yönetici ve Rehber Öğretmenlerin Görev Bilinçlilik Düzeyleri” Y. Lisans Tezi, İstanbul. Leroux, J. A. (1989). Counselling the Gifted Learner: A School Perspective. Canadian Journal of Education / Revue canadienne de l'éducation 14(1). Öcal, M. (2004). Eğitimde Rehberlik. Bursa: Düşünce Kitapevi. School Counselors and Collage Counseling. (N.D.). Accessed: 26 July 2008 http://www.nacacnet.org/NR/rdonlyres/3456C303-C55B-45A5-9D15684455EC69FA/0/06SOCA_Chapter5pdf.pdf Aspects of Environmental Education during the Whole Life Selfo Oruçi, University “Eqrem Çabej” – Albania Abstract The climatic changes, global warming, threatened biodiversity, pollution, alternative energies, the need for more natural resources, etc., will require the information of the public and the growth of its environmental education. The evolution of knowledge and the adaptation with the new conditions of environment will require the renovation of literature at school and changes in the lifestyle. Education will involve all age-groups with their specifications and according to their level of access to environment. Teachers will need constant qualification. NGO-s will play their role in the information of the public and its protection from the state and capital abuses. Environmental education will be more specific for the local authorities, the state administration, the bank creditors, environmental specialists, hunters, forest guardians, medicinal plants collectors, etc. Environmental education will be realized through the school system, through audio-video, the addition of publications in protected zones, NGO-s, promotions of environmental constancy, as well as the direct participation of the public in environmental projects. Key words: Environmental education, natural resources, development, decrease of biodiversity, access to the environment. sustainable Introductions The needs of the society for natural resources are constantly increasing. This will cause the decrease of renovative and irenovative natural resources, the decrease of biodiversity, the destruction of ecosystems (irreversibly in some cases). These are consequences resulting among others from the insufficient knowledge of nature and insufficient environmental education. The planet of Earth is undergoing deep climatic changes (global warming, the greenhouse effect, acid rain, smog, etc.), which are going to influence negatively on the natural environment, particularly on the live world. These consequences will modify the nature, the biodiversity and the human life style. 1148 Aspects of Environmental Education during the Whole Life Biodiversity is highly decreasing. It needs legislative protection, the growth of environmental education in general and the extension of protected zones and an effective management of theirs. Eco-economy will be the economy of the future dominated by alternative energy resources (without leftovers of the carbonic gas). These energies will even evolve the way of thinking and acting of the humankind on our planet. In the touristic market, the competition will develop in the form of the combination of cultural tourism with the natural tourism, therefore the education for the preservation of the values of the nature shall be the key to the success of cultural-natural tourism. One of the peculiarities stays in the fact that in Albania there are entire unqualified generations who are partially and insufficiently informed about the environment. Individuals with such formation are also often found in the various decision making structures having enough access to the environment. The numerous accumulated problems whose risk has been neglected will require time and assets until they find their way of solution. Who can be more specifically involved in this education? The environmental education will during the whole life involve almost all age groups with their specifics according to the level of influence they have over environment. Teachers will have this need constantly; especially those who teach subjects treating the problems of environment (knowledge on nature, biology, technological education, geography, physics, agricultural sciences, etc.). The school texts, in which this kind of education is treated, will be renewed in conformity with the evolution of knowledge, the review of legislation and environmental policies, in application of the convents on the environment, the resolutions of the summits about the climatic changes and biodiversity. The environmental NGO-s will increase their qualification through self education in order to be able to protect the public through environmental information and activities, from the abuses of the capital and the interventions of the state. The elected persons in the central and local levels, who in their activities make also decisions that influence the environment. Their continuous formation and information on the legal issues and environmental strategies is now a necessity. Creditors: because through crediting, in cooperation with the capital owners in investments or transfers they will have direct or indirect impact on the environment. Selfo Oruçi 1149 The specialists of environmental agencies, who compile Environment Impact Decisions and Environment Strategy Evaluations, have greater access to the environment. A considerable number of specialists in the fields of agriculture, the land sciences, in forestry, in geology, water management, etc. are directly linked with the environment and their effects are more specific. Hunters and collectors of medicinal and ether-oily plants must be certified after they have become acquainted with the rules of the activities they exercise, the legislation and the information about the kinds that are vulnerable to extinction. In this way, they contribute in the preservation of biodiversity and the continuation of their activity. The specialists of the Ministry of Environment face problems of the progress toward compatibility of the legislation with the EU countries and organisms on a regional and global level. The solution of the issues related to the problems of environment also requires the acquaintance of the environmental legislation by the organs of justice. The wide public shall be involved through participation in concrete environmental projects, as well as through participation in local and national referendums for problems that have to do with important intervention in the environment. How can we provide education on the environment during the whole life? The teachers will be trained continuously not only with new knowledge, but also with progressive aspects of teaching methods. Theoretical-practical seminars with teachers and students of the branches preparing teachers in the university and pre-university cycles have been developed in the framework of the Green Packet, which is included in the teaching of the 9-year education. Meanwhile, the texts of the subjects treating topics of the environmental education are being reviewed. The incorporation of practical lessons and the modeling of natural events make more effective and trustful the role the individual plays in nature and show how complex the relationships man-nature is. Education at school will indirectly have a broader effect, because humans educate even through their attitudes and actions towards environment. The state policies will play a primary role in the environmental education by enhancing friendly economical initiatives with the environment, where the state will: - compile long-term institutional environmental reforms in conformity with the natural laws, 1150 Aspects of Environmental Education during the Whole Life - increase the scale of information and transparency to the public for the negative effects and consequences of the environmental pollution and interventions in the nature, - set up an administrative environmental court of law foreseeing the crimes and conflicts against environment, which will grow and will become more specific. Inter-border and regional conflicts are going to be more specific and will require more knowledge and expertise on environmental problems. - promote the stoppage of degradation and the rehabilitation of the environment where it is possible, - encourage the economic activities that promote a sustainable development. The environmental groupings and the NGO-s, in cooperation with the community and through the sensibilisation of the power are lobbing the increase of the number of protected zones and their management in order to preserve the biodiversity and stimulate a constant development. More activities related to the acquaintance of the numerous values of nature have been organized by releasing leaflets and information publications about endangered kinds and protected zones. The Ministry of Environment organizes workshops with the local authorities and specialists of the fields of the environment about the continuous situation of the environment and aspects of the environmental legislation. The Ministry of Environment and its experts are trying to include the Environmental Education on the university education levels in those directions in which their activity poses deep impact, like law students, economists, administrators, managers, urban planners, territory planners, specialists of agricultural sciences, etc. The introduction of the OMGJ-s will directly and indirectly affect the food structure. The use of OMGJ-s will also be accompanied by a change in the attitude towards these products, both related with the nutrition values and the consequences their usage might bring about in our life. The life style is conditioned by the way of feeding. Bad feeding is being accompanied by the increase of the number of obese persons, sick persons suffering from the cardiovascular system, etc. Hence the return to organic agriculture is becoming a necessity and humankind is changing the thought about the usage of natural resources. The constant growth of the urban zones has caused the loss of the natural relations of humans with the surrounding environment, therefore the people of the community must more frequently use nature, but even for this they have to get informed about the damages they might cause resulting from its maltreatment for recreational purposes. Selfo Oruçi 1151 The peculiarity of Albania is that it goes ahead, but there is little development, since there is not enough harmonization of the elements that define a constant development. One of the special values of biodiversity, according to the UN Convention (1982), is the ethic value, which still has problems between its understanding and application of this value in nature, which also reveals the more low level of the community about the problems of bioethics. Under the conditions of the decrease of biodiversity, there is a growth in the interest for a full study of forgotten values and the definition about what and how we must preserve in natural conditions, including them in the red books of the flora and fauna. One of the weak points remains the accurate definition of the hot spots, since they are linked to the education, the attitude to the environment and the definition of the priorities in the solution of the respective environment problems. The state organisms and the groups of environmental interest are trying to compile contemporary laws for hunting, for the forests, the pastures, the medicinal plants, etc., because there is discordance with the international convents to which Albania adheres. Recommendations A deeper and wider knowledge of nature in order to enable the policy makers to compile long-term environmental policies and increase the level of the information of the public about environmental problems. Increase in the information on environmental education in the school texts, in audio-video means. The application of more practical séances in the pre-university education for the acquaintance of natural laws. The soonest possible compilation of rehabilitation plans for the hotspots zones in order to stop their further degradation. The role of the state will be essential in the drawing of environmental legislation, in long-term and consistent policies, in strategic environmental evaluations and the stimulation of eco-economy. References Anonymous (2006). Libri i Kuq i Faunës Shqipëtare.Tiranë 2006. Bullini,L.,Pignatti,S.,Virzo De Santo,A.(1998). Ecologia generale.Torino 1998, pp. 475-485. Çullaj,A. (2005). Kimia e Mjedisit. Tiranë 2005, pp. 12-17. 1152 Aspects of Environmental Education during the Whole Life Luczkovich,J.J.,Knowles,D.B. (2003). Environmental Science (earth as a living planet). USA 2003. Stanners,D.,Bourdeau,Ph.(1995). Europe’s Environment. EEA Copenhagen 1995, pp. 530-532. Ministria e Mjedisit, Pyjeve dhe Administrimit të Ujërave. (2008). Strategjia Kombëtare e Mjedisit.February 08, 2007.Web site: http://www.moe.gov.al Ministria e Mjedisit, Pyjeve dhe Administrimit të Ujërave. (2008). VKM për tërheqjen e mendimit të publikut për vendimmarrjen për mjedisin. July 18, 2008. Web site: http://www.moe.gov.al Stanners,D.,Bourdeau,Ph.(1995). Europe’s Environment. EEA Copenhagen 1995, pp. 530-532. Attitudes of Prospective Teachers towards the Role in Students’ Moral Development Derya Şen, Ataturk University – Turkey Hanife Akar, Middle Eastern Technical University – Turkey Abstract A survey was administered to measure prospective teachers’ attitudes towards the role in students’ moral development. Besides, the survey included questions to reveal the moral understandings of teacher candidates and their perceptions regarding the relative importance of formal schooling on the individual’s moral development. A number of 318 undergraduate students pursuing degrees in elementary and secondary education participated in this study. Results suggest that the sample had moderately positive attitude towards the role in students’ moral development. Qualitative data reflected diverse perspectives on morality with the emphasis on character traits, social aspects and basis of morality. Formal schooling was ranked relatively low in importance of its impact on individual moral development with respect to other factors. Key words: Morality, moral education, attitude scale. Introduction Socialization of individuals through schooling is an important mission of educational systems. This role entails educating morally developed individuals for both their own welfare and the society in general to promote social harmony and cohesion. Regardless of the philosophical discussions on moral issues the assumed role that schools contribute to one’s moral development has urged these institutions to take more action oriented approach on this issue. However, in the context of existence of several competing approaches to moral development accompanied with the diverse political, social and religious interests and motives. Consequently, different approaches to moral education yield in service delivery. Studies that examine the values held by the students in 1154 Attitudes of Prospective Teachers towards the Role in Students’ Moral Development schools with different religious orientations (Francis & Greer, 1992), in different type of schools in terms of their service provision (private, state, religious) (Hofmann-Towfigh, 2007) and in different country contexts (Yuan & Shen, 1998) are few of the examples that reflects this diversity. Approaches to moral education has become as various as has character education (Kristjansson, 2006; Samuels & Casebeer, 2005), value clarification (Sandin, 1992), cognitive development perspective (Paolitto, 2001), ethic of care (Noddings, 1995), and alternative strategies of moral education that balance between cognitive and affective approaches (Carr, 2005; Mustakova-Possardt, 2004) may be regarded as one way to explain the different moral education practices in schools. The literature on individual country experiences informs us how moral education has been used to serve particular ideologies and in times of change how its focus is redefined in parallel with the direction of new economic and political priorities (Clayton, 2005; Lee, 2004; Wanxue & Hanwei, 2004). In addition, the studies also suggest social, cultural and technological factors that are influential in shaping a country’s policies on moral education, in this sense globalization, pervasiveness of internet usage, change in family structures, cultural and ethnic diversity and religion are among the stated issues affecting moral education policies (Chi-Hou, 2004; Kutnick, 1990; Wanxue & Hanwei, 2004). Considering complexity of moral education suggested by research findings and the importance attributed to the role of schooling in individual’s moral growth (Garrod, 1992; Noddings, 1995; Sandin, 1992), studies on how an individual teacher feels about, interprets and acts upon this assumed role is relatively sparse (Campbell; 2004;; Kutnick, 1988; 1990; Lin et al., 1988; Tamuri, 2007). Besides, there is not much research on how this responsibility is to be shared among professionals who teach at different educational levels (Henson, 2001). In this sense, the current study attempted to measure prospective branch teachers’ attitudes associated with the role in students’ moral development with the belief that examining the attitudes of pre-service teachers towards moral education is crucial because of their possible impact on later professional practice (Revell & Arthur, 2007). Scale development The attitude scale was designed based on the existing literature and the findings from a previous project that the researchers were involved (Akar et al., 2006)1. Besides the results of this study, open-responses given to the questions 1 Teachers Views on Morality, Moral Education, and Moral Development: Cross-cultural study, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey, BAP- Derya Şen, Hanife Akar 1155 by the 51 undergraduate students who enrolled in Computer Education and Instructional Technology and English Language Teaching programs were used in item construction. The students were asked to write down on sheets of paper their thoughts regarding one of the two following questions that they selected: 1) “I think that I should foster students’ moral growth in the future, because ...” 2) “I don’t think that I should foster students’ moral growth in the future, because...” Face validity of the initial item pool was checked by 10 students who took the graduate course on the attitude measurement and scale development from the Department of Psychology and two in-service teachers with degrees in computer education and classroom teaching. Based on the suggestions regarding the wording and formatting of the instrument and the judgments in terms of its content required modifications were applied. The refined form of the pool included thirty-nine opinion items written in the form of both positive and negative statements (19 and 20 items respectively). It covered cognitive, belief and behavioral tendency items of would and should format. All items were rated on a six-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1(strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree) without option of no-opinion. Besides demographic questions, the survey also included questions in order to reveal the moral understandings of the teacher candidates and their perceptions regarding the relative importance of schooling with respect to other factors that have potential influences on an individual’s moral development. Method Participants and Procedure The scale was administered to a convenience sample of undergraduate students at Middle East Technical University (METU). One individual did not specify his/her gender; the remaining participants (317) consisted of 212 females (66.7 %) and 105 males (33%). Mean age for the participants was 22.04 (SD of 1.78 years). Distribution of the sample according to their respective programs and grade levels is presented in Table 1. 2005-05-02-04 (In this study researchers examined how K-8 teachers approach morality, moral education, and the moral development of students in Turkey and in the United States.) 1156 Attitudes of Prospective Teachers towards the Role in Students’ Moral Development Table 1: Distribution of Sample According to Program and Grade Level Grade level Program Elementary Science Education Second grade 32 16 66 Elementary Mathematics Education 29 22 51 Physics Education 5 7 12 Chemistry Education 2 8 10 20 31 56 English Language Teaching 72 45 117 Not specified 1 2 3 164 131 318 Computer Education and Instructional Technology Total 18 Total Third Fourth grade grade 5 23 Approval was received from the METU Human Research Ethics Committee before conducting the study. Participants were approached during the last 4 weeks of the spring semester and asked to complete the scale. The surveys were administered during the class time. Participation was voluntary. All study participants reviewed and signed informed consent forms. Completion of the survey took approximately 20 minutes. Results and Discussion In order to estimate the factors initially principal components extraction was performed. Two criteria were applied to determine the number of factors: Kaiser’s recommendation of eigenvalues over 1 and scree plot. Prior analysis suggested 2 factor solution, however the second factor explained the 6.98 % of the total variance and five of the six items loaded on Factor 2 double loaded with the first factor. Hence, further examination through several factor analyses with different number of factors based on common factor extraction model (Maximum Likelihood) was performed and each time residual correlation matrix was examined to ensure the quality of the hypothesized factor solutions (Field, 2005; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001 ). As the factor solutions with two or more factors failed to reveal conceptually meaningful results, one factor solution was retained. Obtained factor solution accounted for 49.56 % of the total variance. The result of this analysis is presented in Table 2. As can be seen from the table the factor loading values of 11 items range between .58 and .82. 5 negatively keyed items (Item numbers: 6, 7, 8, 10, 11) requires reverse scoring. 1157 Derya Şen, Hanife Akar Table 2: Item Means, Factor Loadings and Coefficient Alpha for Scale Items M Factor loadings 1. I would inform my students about my subject area as well as on moral issues. 4.67 .826 2. In future, I would make every effort to help students develop their moral values. 4.66 .790 3. All teachers regardless of their subject specialization should contribute to students’ moral development. 5.00 .784 4. I would play a supporting role in students’ moral development. 4.84 .778 5. Teaching can not be thought as separate from moral education. 4.57 .723 6. I can not associate moral education with my subject specialization. 4.46 .702 7. As a branch teacher, moral education is not my job. 4.87 .674 8. It is not the duty of the branch teacher to foster the moral development of students. 4.38 .625 9. I think I should encourage moral behavior among the student. 4.34 .608 10. Branch teachers should spend their work time on content area instruction instead of moral education. 4.97 .598 11. In future, I would not be responsible for my students’ moral development. 4.89 .582 Item The mean scores indicate that the sample group had moderately positive attitude towards the role in students’ moral development. Specific subject specialization seemed not to affect teacher candidates’ willingness to foster moral development in their students, as for this study, the participants were elementary and secondary school majors. This result might be due to the tendency of participants to perceive supporting the moral development of students as professional responsibility. Correlations between each item and the total score from the scale ranged between .57 and .77. To assess the reliability of the scale Cronbach’s internal consistency reliability estimate was used. Obtained coefficient alpha value was α= .91 for this unifactorial scale. The upper and lower limits of the confidence interval were .90 and .92 respectively. 1158 Attitudes of Prospective Teachers towards the Role in Students’ Moral Development Rank Order Scaling Question and Short Answer Qualitative Question 311 individuals answered the rank order scaling question which was designed to ascertain perceptions of teacher candidates on the most significant factors having impact on individual moral growth. We wanted the respondent to put a range of numbers (1-10) next to the possible factors including “family, formal education, religion, faith, genetics, media, social environment, custom and usages, economic conditions and other”, where 1 was the respondent’s first choice. We asked participants to use each numerical value only once and select (x) all irrelevant boxes. Frequencies and the percentage distribution of the ratings were calculated. Following are the results presenting each option with the percentage of individuals who included it in their first three choices and the number of individuals who did not rank it: Family (29.48%, 3), social environment (16.4%, 8), religion (16 %, 37), faith (15.09 %, 60), custom and traditions (8.25%, 30), formal education (6.54 %, 49), the media (3.62%, 63), economic conditions (2.92%, 90), genetics (1.25%, 150), other (individual reason) (.04%, 306). According to the participants, family, social environment, religion and faith had the greatest impact on moral development. Interestingly, only 6.54 percent of the participants included formal education in their first three choices and 49 individuals (15.80%) omitted it entirely from their ranking. Besides, media and economic conditions ranked low by the participants which contradicted our previous findings of research conducted with K-8 teachers (Akar et al., 2006). In that study media and economic conditions were reported as having major effects on individual morality by teachers. As part of the questionnaire, participants were asked to provide the definition of morality. Qualitative data collected from 242 individuals were recorded and grouped by theme and frequencies of responses were taken. Researchers listed 6 categories encompassing individual, interpersonal, social and universal aspects of morality, basis and nature of morality and character traits. The tendency to define morality in terms of its functions and usefulness to society and individuals was apparent. In this sense, the role of morality in the socialization process and its importance for the social sustainability were emphasized. In addition, maintaining decent relationships with others, enhancing one’s well being and the quality of life were among the perceived benefits of morality. Many participants reported morally valued character attributes and principles in their definitions. A large subset of teacher candidates emphasized respectfulness, honesty and nonmaleficence within this category. There was also a slightly smaller group that stressed the differentiation between universalism vs. relativism in their statements. Accordingly, while for some participants morality applied universally, for the others it was determined Derya Şen, Hanife Akar 1159 through either personal or social circumstances. Besides, many preferred to define morality by listing factors they considered important in the development of moral code of conduct. In this sense, society, family and religious beliefs were the most frequently emphasized factors. This finding was in agreement with the results of the rank order scaling question. Interestingly, regardless of the relatively de-emphasis of religious issues in participants’ own definitions, when moral development and basis of morality were under consideration; participants attributed religion of high importance. In this sense, it might be said that although teacher candidates had generally secular understanding of morality, they thought that influence of faith and religion on moral development and moral understanding was evident within the larger society. In sum, overall qualitative data revealed the wide range of views on morality. Considering teacher candidates’ willingness to foster moral development in their students, how this diversity in moral understanding will be reflected in teaching practice in terms of what is important to emphasize and how to teach need to be researched further. In this sense, the questions such as how teacher candidates envision their involvement in students’ moral development and what they think about the adequacy of their skills and knowledge base in moral education can be pursued in future qualitative studies. Limitations of the Study One primary limitation of this study is that the reliability of the scale was checked through only one procedure. Hence refined scale’s quality should be assessed through test-retest reliability estimation. Another significant limitation is that more evidence for the validity of the scale through concurrent validity procedure could not be provided as well-validated measures on the same or similar topics did not exist in the literature. References Akar, H., Temli, Y., and Sen, Y. (2006). Social Sciences Teachers’ views on morality, moral education and moral development in Primary Schools. Working Paper, [s. 48] Middle East Technical University, Ankara. Carr, D. (2005). On the contribution of literature and the arts to the educational cultivation of moral virtue, feeling and emotion. Journal of Moral Education, 34(2), 137-151. Chi-Hou, C. (2004). Moral and civic education - the hidden curriculum in Macau. Journal of Moral Education, 33(4), 553-573. Clayton, T. (2005). Re-orientations in moral education in Cambodia since 1975. Journal of Moral Education, 34(4). 1160 Attitudes of Prospective Teachers towards the Role in Students’ Moral Development Field, A. (2005). Discovering statistics using SPSS. London: Sage. Francis, L. J., & Greer, J. E. (1992). Measuring Christian moral values among Catholic and Protestant adolescents in Northern Ireland, Journal of Moral Education, 21(1), 59-65. Garrod, A. (1992). Learning for life : Moral education theory and practice. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. Hofmann-Towfigh, N. (2007). Do students' values change in different types of schools? Journal of Moral Education, 36(4), 453–473. Revell, L., & Arthur J. (2007). Character education in schools and the education of teachers. Journal of Moral Education, 36(1), 79–92. Henson, R. K. (2001).Perceived responsibility of prospective teachers for the moral development of their students. Professional Educator, 23(2), 4753. Kristjansson, K. (2006). Emulation and the use of role models in moral education. Journal of Moral Education, 35(1), 37-49. Kutnick, P. (1988). 'I'll teach you!' Primary school teachers' attitudes to and use of moral education in the curriculum. Journal of Moral Education, 17(1), 40-51. Kutnick, P. (1990). A survey of primary school teachers' understanding and implementation of moral education in Trinidad and Tobago. Journal of Moral Education, 19(1), 48-57. Lee, A. C. (2004). Changes and challenges for moral education in Taiwan. Journal of Moral Education, 33(4), 575–595. Lin H-Y., Davidman P., Petersen, G., & Thomas, R.M. (1998). Teachers' views of moral education topics –Taiwan and the USA. International Review of Education. 44(1), 65-85. Mustakova-Possardt, E. (2004). Education for critical moral consciousness. Journal of Moral Education, 33(3), 245–269. Noddings, N. (1995). A morally defensible mission for schools in the 21st century. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(5), 365-369. Paolitto, D. P. (2001). The role of the teacher in moral education. Theory into Practice, 16(2), 73-80. Derya Şen, Hanife Akar 1161 Samuels, S. M., & Casebeer W. D. (2005). Social psychological view of morality: Why knowledge of situational influences on behavior can improve character development practices. Journal of Moral Education, 34(1), 73-87. Sandin, R.T. (1992). The rehabilitation of virtue: Foundations of moral education. New York: Praeger. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Tamuri, A. H. (2007). Islamic Education teachers' perceptions of the teaching of akhlaq in Malaysian secondary schools. Journal of Moral Education, 36(3), 371-386. Wanxue, Q., & Hanwei T. (2004). The social and cultural background of contemporary moral education in China. Journal of Moral Education, 33(4), 465-480. Yuan, B., & Shen, J. (1998). Moral values held by early adolescents in Taiwan and Mainland China. Journal of Moral Education, 27(2), 191-207. Basic Numeracy Skills for Adults Pınar Albayrak Ataklı, Boğaziçi University –Turkey Abstract The aim of this project is to develop a ‘‘Basic Numeracy Skills for Adults’’ training program for the parents and the other adult family members of the students in Murat Ataklı Private Education Center. For this purpose, the interactive model of program planning is used. It is a two week (20 hours) program and the target group consists of seventeen adult participants whose ages are from 26 to 57. A need analysis survey is utilized in order to define target group’s needs and expectations. The concepts that are included in the program are Skills of Calculation Mentally, Patterns of Numbers, Problem Solving Strategies, and The Game Theory. For assessing the outcomes of the program, “Levels of Evaluation” approach of Kirkpatrick and Guskey is used. A Training Evaluation Form is prepared and this form is distributed to the participants at the end of the program to see participants’ reactions. After collecting the data from the participants, a statistical analysis is done and average scores of training program, content and presentation are reported. Key words: Adult numeracy, basic numeracy skills, numerate Introduction The term “numeracy” is used in the adult education community to include an array of mathematically related proficiencies that are evident in adults’ lives and worthy of attention in adult education settings (Ginsburg, Manly & Schmitt, 2006, p. 9). While differing in phrasing and emphasis, the definitions recognize that mathematics and numeracy are related but are not synonymous. Pure mathematics is abstract and context-free, yet “unlike mathematics, numeracy does not so much lead upward in an ascending pursuit of abstraction as it moves outward toward an ever richer engagement with life’s diverse contexts and situations” (Orrill, 2001, p. xviii). Most definitions of numeracy refer to this richer engagement by including a connection to context, purpose, or use (Johnston, 1994). Moreover, numeracy requires the ability and inclination to explore this situational mathematical content, thus is owned differently by each 1164 Basic Numeracy Skills for Adults person. Unlike pure mathematics, numeracy has a distinctive personal element (Ginsburg et al., 2006, p. 9). Coben (1998) indicates that to be numerate means that to be competent, confident, and comfortable with one’s judgments on whether to use mathematics in a particular situation and if so, what mathematics to use, how to do it, what degree of accuracy is appropriate, and what the answer means in relation to the context. McDavitt (2001) states that parents have the responsibility for nurturing children and this nurturing process takes place in several areas of development such as physical, emotional, and intellectual. Thereby, they are often at a loss as to how to instill a love and appreciation for mathematics (McDavitt, 2001, p.4). The reason is that they think of mathematics without thinking of its real life applications. It is not uncommon for adult learners to come up with answers for word problems that could not possibly be correct, simply because they are not connecting math to real life situations even though mathematics, like reading, is a subject that is indeed necessary for functioning adequately in society. As quantitative and technical aspects of life become more important, adults need basic levels of numeracy skills to function effectively in their roles as workers, parents, and citizens (Ginsburg et al., 2006, p. 9). Although individual adults’ everyday lives are different, one from another, adults need to improve the mathematical ideas and skills in order to function effectively their daily lives and to continue to change as society changes (Willis, 1990, p.35). Adults living in industrialized societies should possess some knowledge in key areas of mathematics, such as basic arithmetical knowledge and facility with number operations. Throughout life, for developing reasoning, problem solving, being a conscious consumer, dealing with technologies, and making budget; adults need to be aware of the growing recognition of mathematical power and application of basic mathematical skills. By the ‘‘Basic Numeracy Skills for Adults’’ training program, it is aimed to develop a tailor-made training program for the target group. Its mission is to enhance the quality of numeracy work by pursuing three primary goals: (a) to improve understanding numeracy of adult learners (b) to foster innovation and increase effectiveness in adult basic numeracy education (c) to expand access to information and build capacity for adult numeracy. First of all, the context is discerned and needs assessment is realized. Then, program ideas are prioritized, program objectives are developed, and instructional plans are designed. Thirdly, transfer of learning plan is devised, and evaluation plans are formulated. Lastly, format and schedule are prepared and the budget is estimated. Pınar Albayrak Ataklı 1165 Context The program is developed for the parents and the other adult family members, such as elder sisters, elder brothers and relatives, of the students in Murat Ataklı Private Education Center. The target group consists of sixteen family members of students and the instructor of Turkish and Literature course in the education center. There are nearly forty parents in the education center but only two groups of people are selected in order to prevent a big difference between participants’ level of education and level of mathematical background. The first group consists of parents who are graduated from high school and do not go on higher education. The second group also includes the parents and an instructor who are graduated from a kind of social department, not a science department, in a university. So, the target group consists of seventeen members, sixteen family members and one instructor. Eleven of the participants are female and six of them are male. They are mature-age participants, aged from 26 to 57. Although some participants have recently graduated from university (within the last two or three years), most have been out of school for many years and indicated that they have forgotten much of the mathematics they studied there. Although recently graduated people have some recent mathematical experience from the university entrance exam preparation times, it is observed during the needs assessment that these experiences do not create so much difference in the expectations of participating in the training program. So, the target group seems not to show big differences in their current basic mathematical skills for applying the training program in the daily life activities. The education center, where the program takes place, is a private education center, where students attend for preparing university entrance exam (ÖSS) and high school entrance exams (SBS) and take courses from different lessons. The vision of the education center is to keep in touch with the parents of the students closely and to create a synergy with parents. Since the program serves the goals and the vision of the education center, the ‘‘Basic Numeracy Skills for Adults’’ training program is decided to be implemented in this place. Needs Assessment. The needs assessment for “Basic Numeracy Skills for Adults” training program started with the program planner’s own observations. Program planner of this program is also the mathematics teacher within the same education center where the program participants’ children attend. During various parent meetings and discussions about the students’ success, it has been observed that most of the parents are not be able to think mathematics within its real life applications. They mostly see mathematics as a tool just for passing exams with sufficient grades. The idea of planning a basic numeracy skills training program for adults has started with these observations. After identifying 1166 Basic Numeracy Skills for Adults such a need, the program planner thinks that it would be beneficial to develop a program in order to improve participants’ skills for numeracy. Firstly the director of the education center encourages the program planner and after that the idea is shared with the target group. Most of the parents within the target group state their interests to participate such a training program. Building on the NCTM Standards (Gal, 2000, p.18), it is identified seven themes that serve as standards for adult numeracy education, as well as corollary need for adults to become confident in their knowledge. These are: • • • • • • • Relevance and Connections Problem Solving and Reasoning and Decision Making Communication Number and Number Sense Data, Statistics and Probability Geometry: Spatial Sense and Measurement Algebra: Patterns and Functions Each of these themes of standards for adult numeracy education could be preferred by different people and for different aims. However, placing all the topics in the training program may result that the program lasts for months. Such a long term program could be boring and causes timelessness and high drop outs for the participants, most of whom work hard in different fields. As a result, the topics that are covered in the training program are renamed and are restricted as only four themes according to need analysis. Need Analysis Survey is implemented to the target group in order to identify the most preferable four topics in between the participants and to understand their needs better. The survey consists of four main parts. The first part includes demographic information of the participants. In the second part, there are six ‘’Yes-No’’ responses and a type of Likert scale consisting of nine items in which participants are requested to evaluate themselves for each statement on a scale between 1 (Never) and 5 (Always). In this part, it is just aimed to create self realization of own thoughts about mathematics and consciousness about the daily life applications of mathematics. The third part is the main need analysis part. It consists of twelve items in which participants are requested to choose six of the items according to their needs and rank them from 6 (The Most Required) to 1 (The Least Required). Then, there are other ‘’Yes-No’’ statements which consist of ten items related to the participants’ expectations at the end of the program. It is thought that this part may also be helpful for designing the instructional plan. Lastly, the fourth part relates to the preferences of the participants about time schedule of the program. Pınar Albayrak Ataklı 1167 When the four topics for training are identified, as a basic technique, a grading method is used. If a participant does not rank an item, this item is given zero point. On the other hand, if the item is signed as the most important one and is signed as six in the ranking order, it gets six point grades. Later, all grades of each item are summed up and total grade of each one is divided the total number of the participants. Taking average grade for each item is preferred rather than just comparing the total scores of each item. By this way, not only the preferences of the participants for an item but also the ratio of unwillingness to learn that item is taken into consideration. The results of the survey show the group’s need areas of development about basic numeracy skills. After implementation of the survey and analysis of results, participants’ need areas of development can be prioritized. All average scores are ranked from the highest to the lowest score. Accordingly, the subject items is ranked and prioritized as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Mentally Calculation Skills (Item 3). Patterns of Numbers (Item 2). Problem Solving Strategies (Item 4). Game Theory (Item 12). The Importance of Measuring in The Life: Using Money and Time Efficiently (Item 6). 6. Mathematical Steps in Collecting and Interpreting Data (Item 5). 7. Symmetry and Fractals (Item 11). 8. Combination of Probabilities: Living Now (Item 8). 9. Statistics (Item 7). 10. Mathematics in Art and Golden Ratio (Item 10). 11. Geometrical Shapes and Patterns (Item 9). 12. The Importance of Numbers in the Life (Item 1). First of all, all the parents who have the property (being graduated from a high school or a social department of a university) for being participants are called and are informed about the idea of the program. Then, a group session, as the first particular technique, is chosen for needs assessment of the target group. The one hour group session is started with the goal of the training program and the numeracy problems of participants are discussed, and each of the participants’ ideas is identified by brainstorming. By the way, it is aimed that each participant should be knowledgeable about the training program and be willing to participate. Secondly, a survey is utilized in order to define target group’s needs, preferences and expectations in a right way and to prioritize them. After prioritization, individual scores of the items are compared; and the four topics which have the highest grades in ranking are included in the training 1168 Basic Numeracy Skills for Adults program. In fact, it is decided to choose six items for training at the beginning of the program. Since adult numeracy consists of three main concepts, which are numbers, measurement of shapes and space and handling data, and since four of the six chosen items are highly related to numbers concept, it is decided to choose just four mostly chosen items among them. Besides, the probability of causing confusion among participants by instructing a lot of topics in such restricted time causes the program planner to restrict the topics into four. Because of the relationship with problem solving strategies, ‘’Game Theory’’ is preferred rather than ‘’The Importance of Measuring in The Life: Using Money and Time Efficiently’’, which have the same average grade. These four items are ‘’Mentally Calculation Skills’’, ‘’Patterns of Numbers’’, and ‘’Problem Solving Strategies’’ and ‘’Game Theory’’. The remaining items are left out of the program. Instructional Plan. There is a clear relationship between the learning objectives, needs and expectations that are identified through need analysis survey results. Objectives are defined in line with the prior knowledge, experiences and expectations of the participants. Objectives are practical and can be usable in everyday life of the participants. Within the planned time period, it is tried to perform all necessary skills related to the objectives to enhance the point of view of the participants to numeracy. There are ten learning objectives. These are: • Participants will be able to define what numeracy means. • Participants will be able to add, subtract, multiply and divide numbers mentally using effective strategies. • Participants will be able to round, approximate and estimate the calculations. • Participants will be able to recognize and extend number sequences. • Participants will be able to identify the goals of problem solving. • Participants will be able to comprehend the four phases in solving a problem. • Participants will be able to apply problem solving strategies while solving a problem. • Participants will be able to identify the relationship between math and thinking strategically. • Participants will be able to analyze problems with their resolution. • Participants will be able to apply what they learned during the training program. Pınar Albayrak Ataklı 1169 There is a two week training program that takes twenty hours. Each subject item is given four hours; two hours (one day) for instruction of the item and the rest two hours (the next day) for the application. After instructional planning, the required instructional resources and equipments are identified. They are categorized as for participants such that program outline, handouts, target boards and knitting needle and also as for the trainer laptop, projector, camera, flipchart and the evaluation forms. The program is in class training in the education center. Program planner, at the same time, is the instructor of the program. The lessons are instructed in the same class through the training program and the class is arranged to horseshoe sitting plan, which is suitable for promoting interaction and discussion among participants (Beebe, Mottet & Roach, 2004, p. 196). Evaluation of the Training Program. In order to measure whether an objective is reached or not, an ‘‘Individual Numeracy Evaluation Form’’ is prepared. The form consists of ten itemed scale between 1 (Very Poor) and 5 (Very Good). It is distributed to every participant twice during the training. The first copy is distributed at the beginning of the program before the training and the participants are expected to evaluate themselves. The second copy is given at the end of the training. After comparing the scores of the participants in the two identical forms, it is planned to measure success of every objective. For the success of Basic Numeracy Skills training program, it is important to get active involvement of the participants. They are required to implement actively what they have learned in the training. Because they can easily find an application area for the new numeracy knowledge and skills that they will have been learnt in the training program, it is an enhancer for the transfer of learning strategies. Because training is taken place at the private education center, where the program planner works at; the training room, laptop and projector are going to be provided from the education center. In order to decide the specific dates, an optional time schedule is given to the participants within the needs assessment survey. The dates are decided by taking consideration most of the participants’ requirements. Then, each participant are called and provided an agreement on the dates. The training program is taken place on the late of June and the beginning of July in 2008, after the university and high school entrance exams. In order to evaluate Basic Numeracy Skills for Adults training program, “Levels of Evaluation” approach of Kirkpatrick and Guskey (Kreider, Bouffard, 2006) is used. A training evaluation form is prepared and this form is distributed to the participants at the end of the program to see participants’ reactions and comments. The evaluation form is three folded. The first part is for checking whether the training program reach its goals or not. After collecting the data 1170 Basic Numeracy Skills for Adults from the participants, it is reported that all participants agree that the training program has contributed to the progress of the participants’ numeracy skills. As a result, the program mostly reached its goals. The second part is about content of the program. The questions are related to instruction of the program, material and equipment, applications about concepts, and the sequence of the subjects. Even though most of the participants identified their satisfaction, one of the participants point out their confusion about following the program because of high rate of discontinuity. The last part of the evaluation form is for evaluating the presentation. Based on the participants’ answers, they have pleasure to participate the training program however the duration of the program could be longer. Moreover, most of the participants inform that since they are all parents, they can always use the basic mathematical skills they have learnt while nurturing their children's abilities to do mathematics, and encouraging them to have more positive attitudes toward mathematics. As a result, the training program mostly reaches its goals. Conclusion To sum up, ‘‘Basic Numeracy Skills for Adults’’ training program is aimed at finding an effective way in enabling adult learners to work on developing an understanding of number, and of the relationships between operations. These are not new ideas, but rather an attempt to collate some strategies that we have seen used effectively. The key emphasis here is that adult learners should be encouraged to develop a ‘relational’ understanding of number rather than simply an ‘instrumental’ understanding. That is, an understanding of the properties of and the relationships between numbers and between operations, so that in solving new problems they can draw on this and also on their own everyday life strategies. References Beebe, S., A, Mottet, P., T, Roach, D., K. (2004). Boston: Copyright Peasron Education, Inc.,196. Coben, D. (1998). Numeracy, Mathematics and Adult Learning. In Gal, I. (Ed.) Adult NumeracyDevelopment (p.44). New Jersey: Hampton Press. Gal, I. (2000). The Numeracy Challenge. In Gal, I. (Ed.) Adult Numeracy Development (p.44). New Jersey: Hampton Press. Ginsburg, L., Manly, M.& Schmitt, J. (2006). The Components of Numeracy. National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy,30, 9. Johnston, B. (1994). Critical numeracy. Fine Print, 16(4), 32. Pınar Albayrak Ataklı 1171 Kreider, H., & Bouffard, S. (2006). Evaluating Professional Development, according to Guskey. Questions and answers: A conversation with Thomas R. Guskey. The Evaluation Exchange, XI(4), Winter 2005/2006. Retrieved April 16, 2008 from the Harvard Family Research Project web site at http://www.gse.harvard.edu/hfrp/eval/issue32/qanda.htm McDavitt, E. (2001). How Adults Learn Basic Math. Journal of Adult Basic & Literacy Education, Pennsylvania Department of Education Press, 7, 4. Orrill, R. (2001). Mathematics, numeracy, and democracy. In L.A. Steen (Ed.). Mathematics and democracy (pp xiii–xix). Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation. Willis, A. (1990). Being Numerate: What Counts? Hawthorn, Victoria: The Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER), 35. Continuing Education and Professional Development for Greek Primary School Teachers Athina A. Sipitanou, Nikos D. Grigoriadis, Greece Introduction Nowadays, with rapid scientific progress and successive socio-economic changes, the role of the teacher is changing and is becoming multidimensional as regards the necessary scientific and educational tools. Thus, continuing education and professional development for teachers is becoming an important factor of their work, since not only is it a supplement to their basic education, which covers their field of specialization, psycho-pedagogic training and practical experience of student teachers2, but it contributes to improving, renewing and bringing up to date the education teachers initially received. In this way, they can take full advantage of the latest information that pedagogical theory has to offer in order to broaden their knowledge on specialized issues. In addition, not only does continuing education result in increased efficiency in the school system, but on a personal level, it also provides successful career and development opportunities for teachers.3 1. Theoretical approach: continuing education of Primary school teachers Contemporary learning and information societies require that the teacher be aware of the needs of the student and the school, understand the ‘messages of 2 Xohellis, P, . Papanaoum, Z. (2000). E endoscholiki epimorfosi ton ekpedefton. Ellinikes embiries. Thessaloniki, Action. Publishing see also Andreou, A. (1992). Epimorfosi ton ekpedeftikon: polytypia ke polymorfia, in Axiologish tou ekpedeftikou ergou – Vasiki katartisi ke epimorfosi ton ekpedeftinon. Athens, Writers-Teachers Publishing, pp. 208 – 228 see also Vergidis, D. (1998). Proipothesis epimorfosis. In the Journal Ekpedeftiki Kinotita, Vol., 45. 3 Hatzipanagiotou, P. (2001). E epimorfosi ton ekpedefton Zitimata Organosis, Schediasmou ke Axiologisis. Athens, Typothito Publishers, p. 25. 1174 Continuing Education and Professional Development for Greek Primary School Teachers the times’ as well as take initiatives and responsibility, within the very general framework defined by the state4. By the end of the 20th century the need for continuing education for primary school teachers was well understood and was implemented through a number of programmes. Initially in Greece Primary Education Training organizations (Didaskalia Dimotikis Ekpedefsis) ran a two-year programme and then in 1979 the Continuing Education Schools for Primary Education (Scholes Epimorfosis Litourgon Dimotikis Ekpedefsis) were set up for this purpose5.Needless to say, when Pedagogic Departments for Primary School Education were established at Universities, offering four-year Degrees6 there was a much-needed qualitative upgrading of the basic two-year Diploma studies that had been available to Greek primary school teachers until then7. In addition, serious attempts were made in the area of continuing education, since over time there appeared to be a discrepancy between teachers’ knowledge gained during their initial vocational training and the rapid developments in science and technology. The scientific and pedagogic tools that a teacher has at their disposal, more than in any other field, become outdated in a very short period of time.8 In accordance with the legislative framework, teacher’s professional development incorporates the following: − The introduction of continuing education for newly appointed teachers in regards to curriculum, books and teaching methodology, as well as educational policies and their adaptation to the school reality; − Annual in-service training for teachers related to the latest developments in scientific and educational policy, new teaching methodologies and evaluation methods; as well as skills development in order to increase teacher efficiency in response to changing conditions within the 4 www.epeaek.gr «Energia 2.1.1: Epimorfosi ekpedefton ». Antoniou, Χ. (2002). E ekpedefsi ton Ellinon Daskalon (1820 – 2000). Athens: Ellinika Grammata Publishers. see also Mavrogiorgos, G. (1999). Epimorfosi ekpedeftikon ke epimorfotiki politikh stin Ellada. Patras, Ε.Α.P Publishers. 6 Law 1268/1982. Domi ke litourgia ton Anotaton Ekpedeftikon Idrimaton ke alles diataxes. 7 Asimaki, A. (2007).E synisfora tonprogrammaton Exomiosis sto kinoniko ke symvoliko kefaleo ton daskalon in the Journal. «Pedagogiki Epitheorisi» by the Pedagogical Society of Greece (Pedagogoki Eteria Ellados), Athens: Atrapos, Vol., 43, pp. 47-67. 8 Law 1566/1985 «Gia ti domi ke litourgia tis Protovathmias ke Defterovathmias Ekpedefsis» (The structure and function of Primary and Secondary Education). 5 Athina A. Sipitanou, Nikos D. Grigoriadis 1175 educational environment; and − Periodic crash courses for teachers in new areas of educational, subjects, measures and institutions, as well as teacher participation in significant educational innovations. One needs to keep in mind that the teacher is a creative entity in the overall continuing education process9 and for this reason continuing education needs to be resourceful and realistic, egalitarian, decentralized, and up-to-date. In addition, it should result in upgrading teachers’ former qualifications. In Greece, the organizations recommended to conduct continuing education and professional development for teachers were: the local schools, Regional Training Centres (P.E.Κ.), Universities (Α.Ε.Ι.), Technological Educational Institutes (Τ.Ε.Ι.), Schools for the Continuing Education of Teachers for Professional and Technical Education (S.Ε.L.Ε.Τ.Ε.) and the Pedagogical Institute of the Ministry of Education. A series of strong administrative measures augmented the institutional framework of programme organisation, operation and assessment of continuing education in the wider educational field. Nevertheless, it is of the utmost significance that there is on-going exploration which aims at ensuring a degree of concord in the developments between the existing institutional frameworks and the actual social and educational reality. It was not until 1989 that the Greek Ministry of National Education began to consider the academic and professional upgrading of primary school teachers. Legislation to this effect was introduced the following year after discussions with the Teachers’ Association of Greece10; an action that provoked general discontent within the various University Pedagogic Departments. Despite their initial adverse reactions, the University Pedagogic Departments became directly involved in the implementation of special programmes to upgrade primary school teachers’ former Diploma qualifications to Degree status, by proposing specific courses, which however, were never put into effect due to lack of funds and academic and administrative staff shortages. Only later, within the Second Community Support Framework’s Operational Programmes (KPS), related programmes began to be implemented. Throughout Greece, 35,000 teachers participated in these programmes to upgrade their qualifications to Degree 9 Mavroidis, G and Typas, G. (2001). Epimorfosi ton ekpedeftikon: Techniki ke methodologia epimorfotikon seminarion. Athens, Epitheorisi Pedagogikou Institoutou, Vol., 5, pp. 147 – 154 see also Lampropoulos, H. (2002). Diahirisi anthropinon poron ke proothisi tis allagis stin ekpedefsi. Proceedings of 2nd International Conference of P.ΤD.Ε of the University of Patra entitled «Epedia stin avgi tou 21ου eona» (“Education at the dawn of the 21st century”). 10 Presidential Decree 130/ 6th April, 1990. 1176 Continuing Education and Professional Development for Greek Primary School Teachers status. Of these 70% were employed as Primary school teachers in the country’s educational system, while 90% corresponded to Diploma graduates of the Pedagogical Academy. For this reason, its contribution to the teaching field has been most significant. The upgrading of primary school teachers’ qualifications can therefore be considered as a first positive step towards making both the official education institutions and the education professionals working within them fully aware that no longer and under no circumstances can the basic, pedagogical diploma studies be regarded as sufficient for effective teaching practice nowadays. Furthermore, it is imperative that institutions such as universities provide regular systematic teacher training and continuing education opportunities. The Second and Third Community Support Framework’s Operational Programmes (KPS) as well as the Ministry of Education’s Business Educational Programme and Initial Vocational Training Programmes I and II (ΕPΕΑΕΚ I and II) integrate a set of cohesive measures and actions with the wider objectives of improving the educational system and the services provided in order for contemporary social needs to be effectively met, as well as opening up channels of communication and forming direct links with the labour market.11 The aims and design of the Ministry’s Initial Vocational Training Programme ΙΙ (ΕPΕΑΕΚ II) are incorporated into the National strategy for Education and function in conjunction with important legislative actions to enhance human resource potential. Priorities and measures are in accordance with the general development policy of human resources, the National Action Plan for Employment and the National Reform Programme for Development and Employment, educational policy and European Union directives. The Initial Vocational Training Programmes aim at improving education; increasing young people’s potential so that they are readily and easily incorporated into the social and productive process; promoting equal opportunities; fighting social exclusion; raising awareness on issues concerning the environment, initiatives in business development, gender equality; as well as developing mutual respect and fighting discrimination. Programme measures are based on the policies of the European Social Fund with the universal philosophy of promoting a socio-educational policy which aims to satisfy a person’s need to learn, to create, to raise their awareness, to develop communication skills, to be involved in the socialization process, and with the wider aim of preventing and fighting unemployment and social exclusion. 11 Sipitanou, A. (2005). Institutions and Policies of the European Union for Lifelong Learning : a critical-interpretational approach. Thessaloniki. University of Macedonia Publications. Athina A. Sipitanou, Nikos D. Grigoriadis 1177 More specifically, numerous measures concerning the continuing education of primary school teachers were put into effect with funds made available through the Initial Vocational Training Programme ΙΙ (2000 – 2006). Comparatively, we could say that funding from both the Initial Vocational Training Programmes I and II have greatly contributed to the field of education in Greece and particularly to the continuing education of primary school teachers. It is almost certain that without this funding the existing structures would not have been developed nor be operating today. 2. Research approach: views of primary school teachers on the role of Continuing education The Pedagogic Department of Primary Education of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki organized and implemented 4 sets of Programmes to upgrade primary school teachers’ former Diploma qualifications to Degree status in Central Macedonia: - in 1993 – 1996: with 300 graduate teachers. in 1997 – 2000: with 2,346 graduate teachers. in 2001 – 2002: with 231 graduate teachers. in 2003 – 2006: with 2,957 graduate teachers. With the exception of the Programme during the period 1993 – 1996, all the others were funded through the Initial Vocational Training Programmes I and II and their total cost came to €9,008,744. In total, 90 groups were run, of which 50 were in the Prefecture of Thessaloniki and 40 in the other Prefectures of Central Macedonia. 12 An extensive first-time research13 was conducted to study the views of primary school teachers in the Region of Central Macedonia on issues concerning the Programme to upgrade their qualifications to Degree status and the in –service Programmes of continuing education, whose scope was unprecedented for Greece. The research study was carried out in the period November 2005 – January 2006 with a random sample of 1,000 teachers who were attending the Programme to upgrade their qualifications to Degree status. A structured 12 The data comes from the Research Committee of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. (www.rc.auth.gr) 13 The research was conducted and the results published following special permission from the head of the Programme for the upgrading of primary school teachers’ qualifications to Degree status, Ms. Theopoula Anthogalidou as well the consent of the teachers who participated in the study. 1178 Continuing Education and Professional Development for Greek Primary School Teachers interview and a set questionnaire comprised the methodology and S.P.S.S. was used for the statistical analysis. 2.1. Demographic data. Concerning the age groups of the participants (Question 1), 46% were teachers aged 30-40 years, 48% fell into the 41-50 age bracket, and 6% were over 51 years old. Females comprised 57% of the sample and 43% were male (Question 2). The majority of teachers (Question 3) had been in service from 6 to 20 years, of whom 68% besides their two-year Diploma from the Pedagogical Academy, had further qualifications (Question 4). Just over half, 52% of the participants (Question 5) worked at schools in urban centers, 25% worked at schools in semi-urban centers and 23% were at schools in rural areas14. 2.2. Data analysis In the present study, the position and views of teachers were examined in relation to two basic parameters: − their opinion on the Programme to upgrade their qualifications to Degree status; the reasons that induced them to participate in the Programme; how necessary it is; and the degree of satisfaction on the way it was conducted (Questions 6 – 8); and − their intention to participate in in-service Continuing Education Programmes; the recommended duration; and who they propose should be the official institutions for their implementation (Questions 9 – 13). Teachers’ opinions Questions 6 – 8: As can be seen from the participants’ responses, the main reasons that induced teachers to participate in the Programme to upgrade their qualifications to Degree status (Question 6), considering that it was optional, was to acquire the necessary knowledge and qualifications which would allow them to exercise the teaching profession 37.44%. This was followed by 33.13% who did it to satisfy more general interests, 25.43% who wanted to attain another Degree, 20.12% to satisfy direct professional needs, and lastly 16.72% claimed they wanted to acquire specific 14 In accordance with the categorization of National Statistical Service of Greece National Statistical Service of Greece residential areas with up to 2000 inhabitants are considered as rural areas, small towns from 2001 – 10.000 inhabitants are categorized as semi-urban centers, and cities with over 10.000 inhabitants are urban centres. Athina A. Sipitanou, Nikos D. Grigoriadis 1179 knowledge15. Regarding how necessary the implementation of the Programme to upgrade their qualifications to Degree status was (Question 7), while 58.96% answered that it was necessary, another 40.63% expressed the view that it was not necessary. In Question 8, which concerned the degree of teachers’ satisfaction in the way the Programme to upgrade their qualifications to Degree status was implemented, despite the serious problems that arise as is natural from the implementation of such a large-scale programme, over half the teachers 56.36% were generally satisfied with the results. The teachers assessed this on the following factors: the subject content, the material-technical infrastructure, the attitude and standard of the trainers, the programme structure, that the programme was run not only in the metropolitan center but also in the wider region, the accessibility of the educational centers, the schedule, as well as the achievement of the set goals. Teachers’ intentions Questions 9 – 13: The vast majority of primary school teachers, 95% stressed the necessity to participate in Programmes of Continuing Education, which will help them to improve their educational qualifications and to acquire the necessary skills for executing their chosen work (Question 9). Concerning the frequency with which Continuing Education Programmes should be implemented (Question 10), teachers believe that they should primarily be conducted in relation to the special needs that arise in the education field and should occur at least within a five-year period. In Question 11, regarding which official institutions should be responsible for the establishment and implementation of teachers’ Continuing Education, a significant majority of respondents, 73.87% judge that it should be the universities, whereas only 22.52% consider the Board of Primary School Education as the most suitable. The teachers were requested to state what in their opinion could guarantee the success of Continuing Education Programmes (Question 12). The factors in order of importance are listed below: programme planning and organization; lesson content; decentralized implementation; the material-technical infrastructure; teaching aids; how conscientious both trainers and trainees are; and making attendance compulsory. Lastly, the majority of teachers are of the opinion that six months is the most suitable duration for continuing education programmes (Question 13). 3. Discussion The results of the extensive present research, which involved 1,000 primary school teachers from 7 Prefectures of the Region of Central Macedonia were 15 In all the questions that follow data was collected on the statistical deviation in relation to the participants’ age, gender, years of service, which is not included in this paper. 1180 Continuing Education and Professional Development for Greek Primary School Teachers very positive both in regards to the necessity of implementing a Programme to upgrade primary school teachers’ qualifications to Degree status and the way in which this was accomplished by the Pedagogical Department of Primary Education of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Furthermore, participants expressed an intense wish for extended and frequent implementation of continuing education and professional development programmes. They also believe that the Universities are the most suitable institutions for the implementation of such programmes, and finally that these programmes should have at least a six-month duration. As is apparent from the above, the changing nature of schools and schooling renders the continuing education and professional development of teachers an essential component in order for, on the one hand, the education system to better adapt to the social and cultural needs of modern society and on the other, for teachers to develop an acute awareness of their integrated professional role. Continuing education is also imperative for teachers because not only does it ensure that they are systematically informed on issues concerning educational innovations and reforms, but it also reduces any possible ideological resistance or opposition they may have to attempts at modernization. Apart from professional development and valuable aid on a practical daily basis that continuing education offers teachers, it also supports their process of personal growth in multiple ways. To start with, it provides opportunities for progress, the development of new skills and the acquisition of self-knowledge through the thought process, qualities which simultaneously affect the professional acumen and determine the individual sensitivity of the teacher. In addition, continuing education is directly concerned with the acquisition of further qualifications, a fact closely associated with the individual’s career opportunities in the field of education. In conclusion, continuing education and professional development must, therefore, become an exemplary institution. One which will not only take into consideration all the contemporary problems, issues and questions but which also makes significant advances into modern directions, and in so doing guarantees that teachers have both the personal and professional recognition and respect they deserve, which comprises an essential prerequisite for progress, innovation, and improvement in the area of education and the educational system as a whole. Corporate Social Responsibility in Education: The Case of Turkey Yaşar Kondakçı, Middle East Technical University – Turkey Abstract This paper analyzes private (corporate) giving to public education in Turkey. In this paper the concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) is used in analyzing corporate giving to finance public education in Turkey. A commonly highlighted educational issue in Turkey is that the contribution of the beneficiary of education remains very limited (Akarsu, 1990). Education is basically perceived as a public service and the finance of public education is largely dependent on public monies. However, limited public resources form one of the challenges in meeting the demands for education. The paper seeks ways of increasing private contributions to education. First, the paper presents a conceptual discussion on CSR and other related concepts showing the possibility of perceiving corporate giving not only as a part of their discretionary roles but also a part of their corporate strategy. The discussion shows possibilities of making the corporations more accountable for contributing to public education at all levels in Turkey. The second part of the paper presents macro level data from different sources (i.e., Ministry of Education, Ministry of Finance, Court of Accounts, and OECD) showing the private giving for public education. The results draw a picture of corporate contribution to education in Turkey. Key words: Corporate social responsibility, corporate giving, educational finance Introduction Education is one of the basic services developed and delivered by states and financed mainly by public monies. However, because of several reasons, there has been an increasing interest of business in developing and delivering public education services. Especially in the developing countries the interest of 1182 Corporate Social Responsibility in Education: The Case of Turkey business in education is not only limited to how education is delivered but also covers what is delivered as well. For example, one of the business associations in Turkey, TUSIAD, in the last two decades has sponsored several reports on different issues in education and financed textbook developments. These reports and books mainly focused on the process of education and the content of education at different levels. These efforts are intended to breed reform efforts in Turkish education system. Nevertheless, the interest and contribution of business is not limited to breeding reform efforts. For example, currently, there are several projects developed and executed by private corporations aiming at ensuring equal opportunity for all in education, overcoming gender inequalities in educational attainment, and increasing the quality of public educational services. The contribution of corporations and business in fact is not only limited to education sector. In general, business sector is interested in many social issues and corporations have advanced different forms of contributions for the remedy of these social problems. Education has emerged as one of the main sectors that attract the interest of business sector. Although there is a growing interest in contributing to public education, macro data on the issue suggest that there is still limited corporate contributions for financing public education. In general, in the world the common beneficiaries of education contribute very limited to educational sector. Akarsu (1990) argued that the issue is equally true for the case of Turkey as well. This is largely resulted from the narrow conception of the society and education by the business sector. Business sector tends to perceive the society, education and their business as independent entities. As a result, as one of the basic beneficiary of public education, the business sector tends to perceive education as a public service, which has to be financed by public monies allocated from public budget. However, because of various reasons, Turkey has also confronted with some challenges in meeting the demands for education. One of the reasons behind failing to meet the demand for education is the limited public resources allocated to education. Akarsu (1990) argued that “Turkey is one of the few countries in which the sectors making use of the products of educational system do not financially support the process” (pp.33-34). This statement suggests that the beneficiaries of the output of education system in Turkey (i.e., private sector, industry, voluntary organizations, local administrations) should financially contribute to education at all levels. Corporate social responsibility and finance of public education The recent theoretical discussions on business and society suggest new veins for corporate involvement in public education. CSR potentially can help to build a theoretical base for broadening corporate contributions to education. CSR refers to normative appropriateness of corporate actions to societal expectations Yaşar Kondakçı 1183 with all of its constituents (Epstein, 1987). Compatibility of corporate actions to societal expectations can be expressed at economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary dimensions. In other words companies make their business profitable, function within the boundaries of law, craft and implement business actions that are compatible with unwritten ethical rules and contribute to societal development under inexistence of societal expectations to do so (Dentchev, 2005). As a result, the companies are not simply the generators of profit. They have moral and social roles while making their actions consistent with the law. There is a tendency to associate the contribution of companies to public education with their discretionary roles. Companies are traditionally conceptualized as means of profit generation. However, the giving made by the companies as part of their discretionary roles is typically made without expectation of return. Corporate giving is not made in the form of investments. Although it is consistent with the traditional discussions on corporate contributions, this understanding of corporate giving narrows the possibility of corporate giving. CSR traditionally refers to undertaking the responsibility of causing harm. However, in rationalizing corporate giving to education there is no evidence for harm. The fact that the corporation benefits from the outcome of public education still makes it responsible toward public education. Adapting such understanding of CSR helps to broaden the corporate contribution to education. This understanding is conveyed in several other related concepts such as corporate social responsiveness, business ethics, corporate citizenship and sustainable development. Corporate social responsiveness refers to the process managing the company’s relations with the surrounding social groups (Frederick, 1994) and covers the actions made by the company for resolving social problems caused by its actions (Epstein, 1987). Carroll (1979) suggested that the company may take a proactive stance on accepting responsibility and taking actions to resolve the social problems caused by company’s actions. In this company reaction, the company anticipates and does much more that required for resolving social problems. The proactive action of the company makes it possible for the companies to give for resolving social problems (including education) which are not directly caused by the actions of the company. Otherwise, these social issues may cumulate and harm the company to effectively function for accomplishing its mission and vision (Dentchev, 2005). As a result, the company needs to share its created wealth with the society by the way of contributing to resolving social problems that are caused directly by its action as well as the problems that are not directly caused by its actions (Clarkson, 1995). The conceptual discussions on business ethics suggest the possibility of broadening the responsibility of business to cover more than discretionary contributions to business. According to Goodpaster (1997) one of the principles of evaluating the moral adequacy of business actions is building 1184 Corporate Social Responsibility in Education: The Case of Turkey relationships with the community on the basis of loyalty and fidelity. Corporate citizenship suggests that corporations are members of the larger society in which they exist (Waddock, 2002). They are expected to make their business profitable, conduct legal and moral actions, and involve in philanthropic actions; adopt a mutually functioning stakeholder management strategy; involve in resolving social issues, and continuously assess the impact of corporate business on its environment (Carroll, 1991; Waddock, 2002). Sustainable development refers the basic concerns of sustaining the current level resources exploitation without harming the natural environment, sustaining social equality and poverty reduction, and maintaining the current welfare (Aguirre, 2002). One of the primary focuses of sustainable development is providing educational services for all members of the society. These concepts led to a radical change in our understanding of business or corporate actions in the society. They advocate economic welfare, social equality, and environmental preservation. Perspectives on corporate giving It is commonly argued that social involvement of corporations does not increase their total rate of return (Galaskiewicz, 1997). If that is the case, then the question is why the corporations do involve in corporate giving for resolving societal issues. Besser, Miller and Perkins (2006) stated two main perspectives on corporate contribution and community welfare. First, the enlightened selfinterest rationale implies that in the long run, business will prosper if the community is strong. Business contributions will improve the corporations’ human resources pools, widen the tax base of governments which is necessary for building services for their business actions, and provide more prosperous customers. In other words, “what is good for the community will be good for business in the long run” (Besser et al., 2006, 326). The second perspective is the growth machine position. In this perspective business involvement in the community is justified with the opposite beliefs stating that “what is good for business is good for the community” (Besser et al, 2006, p. 326). Growth machine theory contends that corporations do not consider societal expectations. Rather the basic drive in business action is realizing their own benefit that is contributing to the general community betterment. These basic perspectives on corporate giving are supported by different theoretical bases. Resource dependency theory implies that the corporate giving will have positive impact on the company; however, the positive impact will become evident in the long term (Galaskiewicz, 1997). Corporate giving helps to build a favorable corporate image in the eyes of the individuals and groups on whom the company depends (Haley, 1991). The giving of the company to the society helps to communicate its mission, intentions and values which is instrumental for assuring the stakeholders and increasing their awareness about Yaşar Kondakçı 1185 corporate capacity. Haley (1991) takes the argument further to associate corporate giving with managerial masques. As a result, the company gets the opportunity of broadening its influences to broader societal domain but not only in business domain. Perceiving corporate giving as a tool of improving the relations of the firm with its stakeholders and sustaining its positive image for the long term, the resource dependency approach maintains that companies dependent on their stakeholders for resources tend to give more. Another theoretical perspective, the agency theory, argues that corporate givings have not a significant contribution to corporate return or corporate performance, and do not serve stakeholder interests. Rather they are tools serving managerial utility. If the managers are accountable to external owners (e.g., families, individuals, corporate investors) the contributions are likely to be less. In others words, agency theory implies that giving is related to managerial autonomy. Whether the managers have responsibility to shareholders or not is a determining factor in giving. If they are not accountable toward the shareholders they are likely to give more because giving is likely to give them the opportunity to get into social circles and demonstrate their own power and influence (Galaskiewiczs, 1997). Thirdly, institutional theory argues that the decision of giving is largely determined by external pressure. The corporation takes part in the realm or a network of a sector which exercise a social pressure on the company to give. Therefore, the managers of the corporations have limited ability to assess the return of giving or the impact of giving on corporation’s economic performance or bottom line because the drive to give is often caused by external pressure. Peer pressure or the motivations for being responsive to a respected peer in the business community are typical drivers of giving in institutional perspective (Galaskiewiczs, 1997). Corporate contributions to education in Turkey Several macro level statistical data sources were reviewed in order to indentify corporate contribution to public education. In 2008 fiscal plan of MONE (2007) six sources income for financing public education were described: (1) The share from the central governmental budget, (2) Share from provincial administrations, (3) Other regular contributions to education (e.g., shares from lottery revenues), (4) Foreign credits, scholarships, and contributions, (5) Contributions of people, private persons and institutions, (6) Contributions of school-parents associations. In 2007 the GDP in Turkey was realized as 646.893.000.000 TL, the state budget was realized to be 204.988.545.572 TL. The budget of MONE was realized to be 21.355.634.000 TL. This is 3,30 % of the total GDP and 10,41% of the state budget (public expenditures) (MONE, 2007). 1186 Corporate Social Responsibility in Education: The Case of Turkey In EU-25 countries in the 1995-2001 periods educational expenditures were over 10% of the total public expenditures (European Commission, 2007). According to the report Education in Europe, in Europe public and private sources are the two main sources for financing education. In order words, the variety financial sources for public education is limited compared to the variety in Turkey. Public expenditures in EU-25 countries are made by the allocation made central budgets. Private expenditures are made by households, corporate giving, and contributions of non-profit organizations. Table 1: Share of education expenditures in GDP in Turkey and OECD countries, 2002 Total Public Expenditures (Central Government) Private Expenditures U.S. 7.0 4.8 2.2 U.K. 5.2 4.5 0.7 Turkey* 6.2 3.7 2.5 Norway 5.9 5.8 0.1 Countries Australia 6.0 4.6 1.4 Canada 6.4 5.2 1.2 Germany 5.3 4.3 1 Greece 3.9 3.7 0.2 Korea 7.1 4.3 2.8 OECD countries-2002 5.9 4.6 1.3 Argentina 5.9 4.5 1.4 Philippines 6.4 3.9 2.5 Jamaica 9.7 6.4 3.3 India** 4.3 4.1 0.2 Source: OECD Education at glance; retriewed from www.oecd.org * Source UNESCO, however in MONE sources 4.7) ** 1999 data Nevertheless, public education is financed mainly by public sources. It is stated that more than 80% of educational expenditures are made by public sources. Although there are no clear data on private contributions in EU-25, it is stated that in Germany, Spain, Cyprus, Latvia, Hungary, the UK, and Bulgaria, public educational expenditures are less than the average (89%). Therefore, it is estimated that in these countries private contributions are higher than other countries. In some of these countries (Germany, Cyprus, Latvia, and Bulgaria) 1187 Yaşar Kondakçı private funds make 20% of the total educational expenditures. The overreliance on public sources for financing public education is closely related to the existing regulations about the autonomy (or no autonomy) of the schools for raising private funds and funding private schools with private and public sources (European Commission, 2005). It also shows the understanding social state. As a result, private sources for financing public education remain at low levels in Europe. The figures on private contributions for public education are similar, if not the same in Turkey. Table 2 shows the amount of monies received for financing public education from different sources. Table 2: The amount and distribution of education expenditures by financial sources, 2002 Financial Sources Central Government Municipalities and Provincial special administrations Private and juristic persons and institutions Households International Resources Total The amount of total expenditure (TL) (%) 13062138408 64.81 141042192 0.70 313006080 1.55 6620064983 32.85 18956004 0.09 20155207668 100.00 Source: Ministry of National Education; retriewed from www.meb.gv.tr Discussion and Conclusion The limited data on corporate contribution both in Turkey and other countries suggest that there is a limited understanding on both public educational management and business management on the corporate giving to finance public education. One reason which is that both business and public management holds the belief that public education is a public service, which is developed and delivered by governments or states. Rather than holding the principle of “finance by the beneficiary”, they hold the principle “finance by the state.” They hold the traditional stance that education as a public service and should be financed by public monies. There are other issues on public educational management and business management which limit corporate giving for public education. On public education side, there is a problem of managing these contributions and developing strategies of attracting more corporate giving for financing public education. Private contributions are perceived as contributions by households. As a result the agents of public educational management try to collect these from households, which is likely to remain ineffective in increasing the contribution of households to public 1188 Corporate Social Responsibility in Education: The Case of Turkey education. However, the understanding of finance by the beneficiary advanced in this paper is parallel to the growth machine perspective of CSR, which can be summarized as “if the society prospers business will also prosper.” The second, reason is related to the perception of business on contributing to education. In many countries contributions of corporations are perceived as a part of their discretionary roles. In other words, companies do not perceive it as a part of their corporate strategy. As a result, they are not able to assess the impact of their giving because it is difficult to assess the effectiveness these contributions by classical efficiency and profit criteria (Galaskiewicz, 1997). Parallel to the arguments of Porter and Kramer (2006), this paper calls to perceive giving for public education as a part of their corporate strategy. References Aguirre, B. E. (2002). "Sustainable development" as collective surge. Social Science Quarterly, 83(1), 101-118. Akarsu, F. (1990). Report on Turkish education. Middle East Technical University Ankara. Besser, T. L., Miller, N. & Perkins, R.K. (2006). For the greater good: Business networks and business social responsibility to communities. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 18, 321-339. Carroll, A. B. (1979). A three-dimensional conceptual model of corporate performance. Academy of Management Review, 4(4), 497-505. Carroll, A. B. (1991). The pyramid of corporate social responsibility: Toward the moral management of organizational stakeholders. Business Horizons, 34(4), 39-48. Clarkson, M. B. E. (1995). A stakeholder framework for analyzing and evaluating corporate social performance. Academy of Management Review, 20(1), 92-117. European Commission (2005). Basic data on education in Europe. Luxemburg: European Commission. Dentchev, A. N. (2005). Corporate social performance: Business rationale, competitiveness threats and management challenges. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium. Epstein, E. M. (1987). The corporate social policy process: Beyond business ethics, corporate social responsibility, and corporate social responsiveness. California Management Review, 29(3), 99-114. Yaşar Kondakçı 1189 Frederick, W. C. (1994). From CSR1 to CSR2: The maturing of business-andsociety thought. Business & Society, 33(2), 150-164. Galaskiewicz, J. (1997). An urban grants economy revisited: Corporate charitable contributions in the twin cities. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42, 445-571. Goodpaster, K. E. (1997). Business Ethics. In P. H. Werhane & R. E. Freeman (Eds.), The Blackwell encyclopedic dictionary of business ethics. Oxford: Blackwell. Haley, U. C. V. (1991). Corporate contributions as managerial masques: Reframing corporate contributions as strategies to influence society. Journal of Management Studies, 28(5), 485-509. MONE. (2007). Fiscal plan for 2008. Ankara: Ministry of National Education. Porter, M. E. & Kramer, M. R. (2006). Strategy and society: The link between competitive advantage and corporate social responsibility. Harvard Business Review, 84(12), 77-92. Waddock, S. A. (2002). Leading corporate citizens? Vision, values, value added. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Cultural Aspects of Semiotics İsmail Fırat Altay, Hacettepe University – Turkey Abstract Semiotics which is simply based on signs is an important area in language teaching. Human communication is mainly based on speaking, or “verbal communication”. However, “non-verbal communication” is also important. Whenever we speak, we use our hands, mimics and gestures to add information to our message. Clothes, posture and ornaments tell more about the thing we talk about. Besides, sometimes we only use non-verbal communication to give a message. So, semiotics is an indispensable part of language teaching and teachers can use it both to have a better communication with their learners and to teach semiotic aspects of culture in their classes. Key words: Semiotics, culture, cultural aspects, teaching culture, elements of semiotics Introduction The area of English Language Teaching is so broad that it covers so many elements in its content. Semiotics and culture are two of them. However, cultural aspect of semiotics is another issue. At this point, what we have to do is clarifying the terms. What is culture? Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines culture as “the ideas, beliefs, and customs that are shared and accepted by people in a society” (1995: 330). In another definition, culture is presented as the way of life. Since the way of life changes from society to society, in learning a foreign language, one should consider the culture of the target language speakers in order to develop an intercultural communication bridge and have a better, mutual perlocutionary understanding of concepts. Researchers also believe that “language and culture are not separable but acquired together, with each providing support for the development of the other” (Mitchell and Myles, 1998:183). As Mitchell and Myles quoted from Ochs: 1192 Cultural Aspects of Semiotics “It is evident that acquisition of linguistic knowledge and acquisition of cultural knowledge have significant importance. A basic task of the language acquirer is to acquire tacit knowledge of principles relating linguistic forms not only to each other but also to referential and nonreferential meanings and functions… Given that meaning and functions are to a large extent socioculturally organised, linguistic knowledge is embedded in sociocultural knowledge. On the other hand, understanding of the social organisation of everyday life, cultural ideologies, moral values, beliefs, and structures of knowledge and interpretation are to a large extent acquired through the medium of language… Children develop concepts of a socioculturally structured universe through their participation in language activities”. So, it is evident that culture is an indispensable part of language teaching. That is why, it must be given necessary importance. Then comes the second question to mind? What is semiotics? Crystal (1987) defines semiotics as “the study of the properties of signs and signalling systems especially as found in all forms of human communication; also called as semiology or significs”. From this quotation it can be clearly understood that semiotics is directly related to signs and these signs are that of the human body mostly. This paper will focus on the integration of culture and semiotics. In this aspect, it will start with elements of semiotics and go on with the use of semiotics in ELT. Its limitations will be touched upon and finally speculations on the issue will be dwelt on in conclusion. Elements of Semiotics As far as the elements of semiotics is concerned, we have to consider auditory-vocal, visual, tactile, olfactory and gustatory elements. Some of these elements have their sub-types as well. Now, it’s time to focus on them. Auditory-vocal The structured use of auditory-vocal mode or channel results in primary manifestation of language: speech. But, non-linguistic uses of the vocal tract are also possible: psychological reflexes, such as coughing and snoring; musical effects such as whistling; and the communication of identity, in the form of voice quality. The suprasegmental aspects of vocal expression are usually included within the study of language. Sub-elements of auditory-vocal are speech, psychological vocal reflexes, musical effects and vice qualities. İsmail Fırat Altay 1193 Visual The visual element is used for a variety of purposes, some linguistic some not. The primary way in which visual effects have a linguistic use is in the various deaf sign languages. In addition, there is the historically derivative use of the visual mode that resulted in the development of written language. Further, writing-based codes, such as semaphore and morse would also be included here. Non-linguistic forms of visual communication include the systems of facial expression and bodily gesture, which are the subject-matter kinesics, one of the three sub-branches of visuals. The other two are sign languages and codes as is said before. Tactile Tactile communication has very limited linguistic function, apart from its use in deaf-blind communication, and in various secret codes based on spoken or written language. Its main uses are non-linguistic, in the form of the various ways in which bodily contact and physical distance between people can signal contrasts of meaning – the subject matter of proxemics. The communicative use of the visual and tactile modes is often referred to as nonverbal communication especially in academic discussion. In everyday term it is the area of body language. Olfactory and Gustatory There seems to be little active role for the olfactory and gustatory elements in human communication, though they have great importance in animal communication. They do play an important part in human perception of information about the outside world, like in smelling and tasting food. The communicative use of body odour seems to have a mainly sexual role in human society, but there are several anecdotes of its use in the other domains. One linguist even claimed to be able to tell when his informants were under strain by different body odour they exuded. In brief, elements of semiotics clarify the relation between semiotics and culture. The reason is that they change from culture to culture. So, how can the learners of a foreign language be informed about these all? This question will be answered in the coming part. How to Use Cultural Aspects of Semiotics Cultural differences among semiotic symbols of different countries or societies are arbitrary. So, it is not easy for the language learner to grasp the semantic differences between semiotic elements. These semiotic varieties are generally presented through some ways. They will be the matter of this section. 1194 Cultural Aspects of Semiotics Cursebooks Coursebooks constitute a very important means in letting learners have information on cultural differences as far as semiotics is concerned. The culture of the learner and the culture of the target language speaker community may differ so much in terms of semiotics. There comes coursebooks. They provide a good source at this step. They provide examples of saluting people, saying hello, leaving, promising etc. with audio cassettes, video cassettes, compact discs, maps, pictures and some other supplementary materials. By the help of these supplementary materials, they improve the proxemic and kinestetic aspects of semiotics in the mind of the learner. Coursebooks are generally the main source of information for the learner; however, because of their strong content, they can provide good examples of the target culture related to semiotics. So, if structured well, a coursebook can make much use in letting learners have a detailed idea on differences between two cultures in terms of semiotics. Teacher and/or Native Speaker Language teacher can do a lot about the semiotically related cultural issues as well. A teacher with a high quality of information on the issue may help his learners. He can make some demonstrations in class to inform the learners. The voice that a cat or a cock produces changes from culture to culture, so the teacher can let the learners have information on these all. This can be in form of a song, a game, discussion, role play or any other way. If possible, a native speaker of the language may be of great use. A native speaker teacher may be considered as a fist-hand source for semiotic information on target language culture. The learners may both enjoy having time with him and learn more on the topic. If a native speaker teacher is not possible to have, than native speakers may be invited to the class. Visuals Visuals have a very important role in semiotic knowledge production, especially for the tactile element. In fact, coursebooks provide good visuals for learners. They can be very useful in comparing and contrasting two different cultures. When the visuals of the coursebooks fall short, other visual and possibly real materials may be brought to the class. They are not only the center of interest in class but also very genuine and authentic real world elements. Thus, they must be placed in teaching-learning process as much as possible. İsmail Fırat Altay 1195 Video, Media, Internet and Cable TV Visual materials may be good for visual learners, but learners with other intelligences should not be neglected. In this respect the use of video, media, internet and cable TV may be very useful. By the help of all these means, the learner will be exposed to the signs and symbols used in the target language, and he will be informed well enough on this issue. After seeing these things, he will be able to see the similarities and differences between two cultures. It is also easy and not time consuming to watch TV, for instance, in having information and it is fun for the learner. Internet is a very important as well. Nobody can deny the role of video which provides practical uses of movie and similar products. So, in general media can be utilized in demonstration of semiotic elements differing from culture to culture. Cartoons, Documentaries, Memoirs Cartoons help learners in many ways. They have posture, bodily expressions, personal space, distance all in one. They present these cultural semiotic information in an amusing, non-threatening way. Besides, they refer to all levels easily, or with a bit of variation. So, they can be put in the curriculum to increase the semiotic and cultural content of the language teaching atmosphere. Documentaries are the densest form of cultural information. They are also equipped with semiotic elements. So, language learners can make use of documentaries. By the help of documentaries, information about far away countries will be reached. So, semiotic signs and symbols of different cultures can be understood. In this respect, the desired aim of autonomous learning will be reached. Memoirs, which are written records of events usually based on personal knowledge, may be used to have semiotic information about other cultures. Such sources of information are ver valuable for language learners. However, they may have subjective nature if they are personal. As a consequence, coursebooks, visuals, teacher and/or native speaker, media, video, internet, cable TV and similar means help a lot in having semiotic knowledge about the culture of the target language speaking community. They make the job of language teacher easy. Besides, communication in the target language becomes more authentic and realistic with these semiotic fragments. So, they should be presented through these means. Limitataions of Cultural Aspects of Semiotics in Elt Semiotics has a very significant place in language teaching. When integrated with culture, which is semiotics itself in a sense, it become as 1196 Cultural Aspects of Semiotics indispensable element in cultural development. However, it possesses some limitations as well. Initially, which aspects of semiotics should be taught as far as culture is the matter of debate? Different teachers may pick up different aspects and elements. Then, the teaching of language with respect to this fact will be so much different from that in another class. Apart from this, will the teacher be the only authority in choosing the elements he wants to share with his class. Or, shall there be another decision making mechanism? If the teacher is going to decide which aspects or elements of semiotics related to culture is to teach, then how will he choose them? Is he equipped well with the necessary knowledge? Another important fact is that culture changes from society to society, so semiotics. Which society’s semiotic elements or aspects will be chosen? Let’s take English language. Signs and symbols may change variations as far as British, American, Australian and New Zeeland cultures are considered. The reason is that though they have shared parts, there are some differences as well. Since some symbols are arbitrary in nature, variations are so natural. This fact should be considered by the teacher who focuses on the issue. It is an undeniable fact that it is not easy to make learners aware of semiotics of culture. Only lecturing is never enough. So, there is a strong need for multimedia. But, is this available in all classes? Not all the classes, but most of the classes and schools are not equipped with this facility. We can easily see the low number of foreign language teachers in our schools. So, can we have the cultural aspects of semiotic education in the target language? Only with some eager teachers this would be possible but with a low scale. So, material weaknesses are in charge at this step. Next, enough class time is not found easily in our curriculum. Our teachers even do not have enough time to follow coursebooks, so an extra time is difficult to find. Then, practical ways should be sought. However, are our teachers aware of the practical ways in teaching cultural aspects of semiotics in less time consuming ways? Since we have foreign language teachers whose real jobs are not foreign language teaching, there may be a kind of misdirection at this point. Conclusion The teaching of semiotic elements in foreign language teaching area with respect to culture is of great use. However, our curriculum does not have much about cultural semiotic elements. So, what should be done? Initially, our curriculum should have semiotic content. We know that signs and symbols are in our life all the time, in all levels. However, we cannot have the mastery over them all. We may know the traffic signs in Turkey; however, the ones that are used in England may be different. The situation is the same for İsmail Fırat Altay 1197 communication signs. We may mean “yes” by nodding our head upside down, but people from other cultures may mean the same thing by turning their head to right and left. Therefore, there is a deadly need for semiotics of culture to have better communication. But, our foreign language curriculum lacks this part. A semiotic elements part may be added to increase the quality of communication. The semiotic part in books may be increased by adding visuals to the point. These visuals may present similarities and differences between cultures. Besides, they may be supplemented by CDs, video cassettes, audio cassettes, etc. may be added. In this respect, the curriculum may be improved in teaching foreign languages. References Crystal, D. (1987). The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fawcett, R. P. (1984). The Semiotics of Culture and Language. London: Frances Pinter. Innis, R. E. (1985). Semiotics: An Introductory Science. Bloomington: Indiana University Pres. Lucy, N. (2001). Beyond Semiotics. London: Continuum. Mitchell, R. and Myles, F. (1998). Second Language Learning Theories. North Yorkshire: Replika Press. Perron. P. (2000). Semiotics and Information Science. New York: Legas. Tobin, Y. (1990). Semiotics and Linguistics. London: Longman. Differences in Outcomes between Students Studying in ECT System and Students Studying in Traditional System Sofija Arnaudova, Ivan Trajkov, Faculty of Philosophy – F.Y.R.O.Macedonia Background A couple of years ago our country, together with the countries from the region-Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia, had started developing new, reformed curricula in the spirit of Bologna process. The main reason for starting this ECTS program was getting similar achieving like other European countries and also easier and expanding student and teaching mobility, as well as the mobility on the European labor market. We’ve wanted to get compatibility, comparability and transparency of the study programs. Our general aims were to develop professional profiles and desired learning outcomes and competencies including skills, knowledge and to create European networks able to present examples of good practice. Also, our aim were to facilitate transparency in the educational structures and innovation through communication of experience and identification of good practice, to elaborate common methodology and projects between European universities by building bridge networks. Research The main question in our research is if we had managed to fulfill our aims in the previous tree years, the period in which students are learning by this ECTS program. Our main hypothesis were that students learning by ECTS are going to be more satisfied then the students learning by the traditional program. For that reason we have made a questionnaire with 40 questions (with answers from A to E, where A is excellent and E is poor) divided into nine groups: Information about the studies rules Attending classes and practical work during the year Study program 1200 Differences in Outcomes between Students Studying in ECT System Literature Opinion for the professors Opinion for the assistants Tests Final exam Mobility of the students The research was made on sample from 148 students divided in two groups (group A- students studying in ECTS, and group B-students studying in traditional system). The research was made during the summer semester in the period of one month and the sample was made from students from the Department of Social work and Social policy. The first group-A, students studying in ECTS, were students from second year of studies, and the other group-B, students studying in traditional system, were students from fourth year of studies. This group of students is the last generation in our University that is studying in traditional system. That is why we wonted to make comparison between the two groups, and see the results of our previous work. The results in Table 1 are showing that 20 students from Group A are totally informed about the study rules, despite 10 students from Group B. Partly informed about the study rules are 55 student from Group A and 25 from Group B, not informed are 3 student from Group A and 35 from Group B. Table 1: Results of the student for their information about the student rules Information about the studies rules Group A Group B A 20 A 10 B 55 B 25 C 3 C 35 N=78 N=70 The results that are connected with the group of questions about attending classes and practical work during the year are showing significant difference between both groups. 66 students that are studying by ECTS were attending the classes always, and only 12 students have said that has go to classes partly. 32 of the students from traditional system were attending the classes always, 24 partly and 14 never (table 2). 1201 Sofija Arnaudova, Ivan Trajkov Table 2: Results of the student for their attending classes and practical work during the year Attending classes and practical work during the year Group A Group B A 66 A 32 B 12 B 24 C 0 C 14 N=78 N=70 Information about the study program shows that there isn't a big difference between two compared groups. Most of the students from Group A (32) have said that the study program is partly organized, interested and useful, only 5 are very satisfied, and 2 are not satisfied at all. The results in Group B are very similar, 39 have said that the study program is partly organized, interested and useful, 4 are very satisfied and 2 are not satisfied at all (Table 3). Table 3: Results of the student for their opinion about student program Opinion about student program Group A Group B A 5 A 4 B 31 B 15 C 32 C 39 D 8 D 10 E 2 E 2 N=78 N=70 In the Table 4 are presented results that refer to the literature that is used for preparing the exams. Only 2 students from both groups think that the literature is available, understandable, useful and appropriate for their age. 32 students from Group B think that for some subjects the literature is usually appropriate, and 34 think that it is partly all right. From the other group the main percent of the students (74) think that literature is sometimes available, understandable, useful and appropriate for their age and sometimes not. 1202 Differences in Outcomes between Students Studying in ECT System Table 4: Results of the student for their opinion about the literature Literature Group A Group B A 2 A 2 B 0 B 32 C 74 C 34 D 2 D 2 E 0 E 0 N=78 N=70 Expected or not, the results that are showing the opinion of the students for the professors and assistants are very different. 34 of the students from Group A think that professors are always on time, available for the students, respect the opinion of the others and have good lectures. 32 are usually satisfied from them, 10 sometimes, and only 2 student from Group A usually are not satisfied from their professors. In Group B 12 students think that professors are always on time, available for the students, respect the opinion of the others and have good lectures, 26 are usually satisfied from them, 25 sometimes and 7 usually are not satisfied from them. 64 students from Group A think that assistants are always on time, available for the students, respect the opinion of the others and have good exercises, 11 are usually satisfied from them, 2 sometimes and only 1 student usually is not satisfied from the assistants. In Group B 33 students think that assistants are always on time, available for the students, respect the opinion of the others and have good exercises, the same number of students are usually satisfied from them and only 4 students from Group B are sometimes satisfied from their assistants (Table 5). 1203 Sofija Arnaudova, Ivan Trajkov Table 5: Results of the student for their opinion about the professors/assistants Opinion for professors/ assistants Group A Group B Professors Assistants Professors Assistants A 34 A 64 A 12 A 33 B 32 B 11 B 26 B 33 C 10 C 2 C 25 C 4 D 2 D 1 D 7 D 0 E 0 E 0 E 0 E 0 N=78 N=70 According to the students opinion 52 of the students from Group A are satisfied from the way of evaluation, results and questions on the tests, 16 are usually satisfied, 4 sometimes, and 4 of the students usually are not satisfied. The results from Group B show that 16 of the student are satisfied from the way of evaluation, results and questions on the tests, 32 usually are satisfied, 20 sometimes and 2 usually are not satisfied from the way of evaluation, results and questions on the tests. This results are very similar with the result concerning on the final exam. Mobility of the students was one of the most polemically question where 18 of the students from Group A think that the study program provides mobility and that the knowledge will help them in their practical work, 34 can not decide yet, 22 of the students are doubt in it and 4 think that mobility is not possible. Students that study in traditional system think that mobility is not possible and practical knowledge is on minimum level (57) and only 13 students are doubt that maybe sometimes their will use their knowledge somewhere. The results above and the comments of the students are showing that according to the reforms in the education system, the new curriculum is being developed by learning generic and specific competencies and quality enhancement, and according to them this ECT system is more useful and applicable in everyday life. 78 students that are studying in ECT system were saying that the most important competencies that they had reached in previous tree years were capacity for analysis and synthesis, capacity to learn, problems solving, capacity for applying knowledge in practice and capacity to adapt in new situations. The main problem for this group of students was not having a literature in their mother language. The other group, 70 students that are still learning in traditional system had said that the education they received is not 1204 Differences in Outcomes between Students Studying in ECT System adequate. They think that apart from basic general knowledge and knowledge of a second language, other competencies are not at all treated in their high education. Education and Ethnic Tolerance Albena Nakova, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences – Bulgaria Abstract The proposed article examines the role of education for the formation of the mutual images that various ethnic communities have of one another in today’s world of intense interethnic interaction. I specifically have in mind the difference between the images of the other ethnos among people with secondary vocational education or higher, compared with those among people with secondary general education or lower. The analysis is based on an empirical sociological survey conducted in 2007 in Bulgaria in a town where three ethnic communities coexist: Bulgarians, Turks, and Roma ; it is aimed at determining the conditions for tolerant interethnic communication and interaction as they are connected with the images that various ethnic communities form about themselves and about others, as manifested in ethnic stereotypes. Key words: Ethnic tolerance, self-stereotypes, heterostereotypes. Introduction What is the role of education for the formation of images of various ethnic communities of one another and does it have an impact on the capacity for tolerant interethnic social communication and interaction? This is the question we are addressing in this article; we will seek the response through the results of an empirical sociological survey conducted in February 2007 in a small Bulgarian town with an ethnically mixed population, the town of Betovo, where three main ethnic communities, Bulgarian, Turks, and Roma, have lived together for centuries. In a purely theoretical aspect we see a link between interethnic tolerance and the consistency of images of separate ethnic communities, characterized by the presence of a positive or neutral image of the other ethnos together with a positive perception of one’s own ethnos. Respectively, ethnic intolerance means a predominantly negative perception of the other ethnic community combined 1206 Education and Ethnic Tolerance with the presence of a positive perception of one’s own ethnic community, expressed in the so-called in-group favouring or out-group discrimination. Correspondingly, our survey aimed to establish the nature of the images, expressed in stereotypes that the ethnic groups of Bulgarians, Turks and Roma in Vetovo have regarding themselves and the other two communities. The emphasis in the study of stereotypes has been put on the specific characteristics of their cognitive structure and orientation according to the attained degree of education; in this way we will attempt to show the role of education for achieving perceptive consistency and, respectively, for forming a model of tolerant interethnic social intercourse and interaction in a city where the historically shaped images over the centuries of coexistence and under the conditions of direct contact between ethnic groups have undeniably marked the constructed models of interethnic social intercourse. Concerning the methods of the survey In the quantitative survey we conducted we worked with a random sample of 1258 persons, representative for the three surveyed ethnic communities in the town: Bulgarians, Turks, and Roma, out of a total population of 5885 people; the sample was formed on the basis of a unit model of selection. The structure of the sample corresponds to the official statistical data regarding the composition of the town population by ethnic affiliation. The selection of respondents was based on the voting lists of the latest population census in 2001. The basic registration method by which the primary empirical information was gathered consists in a standardized questionnaire corresponding to the place of residence and including well-known social psychological tests aiming at triggering the socio-perceptive mechanisms of interethnic communication, which were modified for the purposes of the study. These were the Kuhn and MacPartland tests, the Kelly test for personal constructs, and the Bogardus scales. The standard statistical error envisaged for the survey is ± 2,5%. On the basis of a registration of traits indicated by respondents as characteristic for each of the three ethnic groups, we derived 176 characteristics that recurred many times (being indicated by over 10% of the respondents), given that the ethnic stereotype, being a group construct, is characterized by consistency of opinions among group members. By ethnic groups the general number of characteristics was divided thus: Bulgarians were characterized using 90 characteristics; Turks, with 75, and the Roma, with 88 characteristics. The analysis of the contents of the initial number of characteristics enabled us to distinguish five groups: qualities of character; characteristics expressive of attitude to work; social characteristics; characteristics reflecting attitude to traditions, family, and religion; characteristics related to everyday domestic life and culture. The analysis of the distribution of traits by ethnic groups enabled us Albena Nakova 1207 to establish the basic components of the cognitive structure of self-stereotypes and heterostereotypes that the three ethnic communities are forming. Stereotypes among Bulgarians It proved typical for the self-stereotypes of Bulgarians that they contain both positive and negative characterizations, but it is specific for them that they simultaneously include opposed pairs of characteristics, for instance hardworking and lazy, kind and mean, determined and apathetic, sociable and reserved, patriotic and uprooted, indifferent to their past; all this indicates the internal contradictions and ambivalence of these stereotypes. It is remarkable that the higher the education of the respondents, the stronger the ambivalence of these self-stereotypes. For instance in the case of Bulgarians with a basic and secondary general education, the positive characteristics are prevalent, though negative ones are also present. When characterizing their own ethnic group, it is with a great in-group consistency that Bulgarians with a primary and secondary general education indicate traits such as industrious, kind, hospitable, sociable, honest, good-natured, not malicious, helpful, modest, polite, merry, intelligent, studious, setting a high value on the family, patriotic; on the other hand, they are judged to be selfish, self-serving, envious, not united, mean, dishonest, etc. In the self-stereotypes of Bulgarians with secondary vocational and higher education the positive and negative characteristics are equally present, and not only does the ambivalence of self-stereotypes become greater, but the social aspect also grows stronger. While Bulgarians with primary and secondary general education mostly stress traits related to qualities of personal character, attitude to work and the family, Bulgarians with secondary vocational and higher education emphasize mostly the social characteristics of their own ethnic group. Here are some characteristics included in the self-stereotype of Bulgarians with secondary vocational and higher education: industrious, hospitable, tolerant, balanced, respectful of others, determined, ambitious, collectivistic, setting a high value on the family, and, on the other hand, pessimistic, nihilistic, selfish, individualists, lacking initiative, apathetic, not united, living in the past, envious, greedy, etc. The heterostereotypes Bulgarians have regarding the Turks and Roma in Vetovo give a different picture. In the Bulgarians’ heterostereotypes regarding the Turks positive and negative characteristics are both present, but unlike the self-stereotypes of Bulgarians, here the positive characteristics predominate, so that Bulgarians display an overall positive heterostereotype regarding the Turks, which refutes the hypothesis that heterostereotypes are generally more negative than self-stereotypes. Moreover, it is notable that higher degrees of education are correlated with higher degrees of positiveness of heterostereotypes. For instance, while Bulgarians with primary and secondary general education 1208 Education and Ethnic Tolerance characterize Turks as: industrious, united, hospitable, honest, easy to get on with, studious, tolerant, but also secretive, vengeful , crafty, thirsty for power, Bulgarians with secondary vocational education indicate only two negative traits of Turks: they avoid other ethnic groups, and are conceited, and Bulgarians with a higher education point to only one negative quality: too politically motivated. Since we have defined tolerance as consistency of images entertained by an ethnic group, whereby the image of the other ethnic group is positive or neutral and that of one’s own community is positive, then the combination of a positive heterostereotype of Bulgarians for Turks and the lack of negative self-stereotype can be regarded as a consistency of images where the model of social relations Bulgarians demonstrate towards Turks can be defined as tolerant with elements of ambivalent images regarding their own ethnos. We should also point out that, with the increase of education level, the positive image of the other ethnic group also increases, but the ambivalence of image of one’s own ethnic group also becomes higher. A different model of social relations emerges when comparing the selfstereotypes of Bulgarians with their heterostereotypes regarding the Roma. What is notable about Bulgarians’ heterostereotypes with regard to the Roma is that negative characteristics predominate almost exclusively. The surveyed Bulgarians of all educational levels are unanimous in characterizing the Roma as: lazy, lying, thieving, swindlers, impertinent, bad-natured, secretive, irresponsible, crafty, uneducated, impolite, seeking their own interest, enclosed in their community. The few positive traits that all Bulgarian respondents, regardless of education level, indicate in the Roma are that the latter are merry, carefree, united, and that they uphold their traditions. But since the generally negative image that emerges in the stereotypes of Bulgarians regarding the Roma community, is combined with ambivalent images regarding the Bulgarians’ own ethnic group, we may say this too is a case of cognitive consistency; though it cannot be said the Bulgarian model of relations regarding the Roma is truly tolerant, this model can still be described as expressing a particular type of tolerance in the sense of a “tolerance towards shortcomings” and “putting up with otherness”, an attitude that has been formed over long years of close coexistence between Bulgarians and Roma. Stereotypes of the Turks What is most specific about self-stereotypes of Turks is that, unlike those of Bulgarians, they are generally positive. Respondents of the Turkish ethnic group show high in-group consistency when indicating the following traits for their own group: kind, industrious, hospitable, respecting traditions, easy to get along with, helpful, respectful of others, good friends, good neighbours, united, educated, studious, intelligent, etc. Occasionally negative traits are indicated, Albena Nakova 1209 but these do not modify the generally positive self-stereotype. For instance Turks with a primary education indicated two negative characteristics: selfseeking and jealous. Turks with secondary general education also indicated two negative characteristics: reserved and afraid of taking risks. Among Turks with secondary vocational education the negative trait indicated is only one: envious, while those with a higher education indicated no negative traits at all. So in this case as well, we may say that, with higher levels of education there is an increasingly positive self-stereotype. As for the heterostereotypes of Turks regarding Bulgarians, they are marked by their entirely positive value. Respondents among the Turkish ethnic group indicate the following traits for Bulgarians: good, easy to get along with, friendly, helpful, honest, polite, smart, industrious, hospitable, willing to help others, good neighbours, respectful of other ethnic groups, responsible, educated, and cultured. The presence of a few cases of negative characterizations does not change the overall positive value of the heterostereotype. Such negative characteristics are: self-seeking (indicated by Turks with secondary general education), don’t follow traditions (indicated by Turks with secondary vocational education), and secretive (by Turks with higher education). The conclusion we can make, when comparing self-stereotypes of Turks with their heterostereotype regarding Bulgarians, is that the attitude of Turks toward Bulgarians displays an entirely tolerant model of social relations with the highest degree of consistency and of positive images that any of the three surveyed ethnic groups living in Vetovo have shown to another ethnic group. We find that, when a model of interethnic relations is overall tolerant to such a high degree, it remains so regardless of the educational level of the representatives of the ethnic group. The heterostereotype of Turks regarding the Roma ethnic group are quite different. The distinctive feature of Turks’ heterostereotype regarding the Roma is its clearly ambivalent nature. It is notable that all Turkish respondents, regardless of their degree of education, indicated the same traits for the Roma ethnic group: kind, industrious, good friends, good neighbours, open, easy to get along with, respectful of others, united, hospitable, respectful of traditions, they have the most expensive houses and cars, yet they are also said to be mean, lazy, spongers, living on social assistance payments, liars, thieves, not to be trusted, double-faced, criminals, uneducated, bad-mannered, hard to get along with, secretive, etc. What is specific about the ambivalent stereotype of Turks regarding the Roma is the presence of couples of opposite characteristics. We see that the Turks consider the Roma to be good and bad; hard-working, working abroad, and lazy, dependent on social assistance, secretive and open; hard to get along with and easy to get along with; bad-mannered and respectful of others. This ambiguity in the attitude towards the Roma is due to the differing 1210 Education and Ethnic Tolerance attitude that Turks have toward Muslim Roma, whom they respect and to whom they ascribe almost entirely positive qualities, and to the Christian Roma, whom they consider to be thieves, liars, criminals, lazy, unemployed, and poor. This attitude reflects the actual situation in Vetovo, where Muslim Roma often travel abroad to work, and therefore have greater financial means, are well-to-do, have fine cars and houses. Unlike them, the Christian Roma are poor, unemployed, and their occupation, if any, is to steal, cheat, engage in various criminal activities. Within this ambivalent heterostereotype of Turks regarding the Roma, we can distinguish two groups of characteristics, each of which forms an integral complex of traits describing the Roma ethnic community and allowing us to distinguish two different images of this community in the views of the Turkish respondents. In fact we can say there are two stereotypes within the frame of the Turkish heterostereotype about the Roma - a stereotype for Muslim Roma and another for Christian Roma - which are at opposite extremes: that for the Muslim Roma is entirely positive; that for the Christian Roma, entirely negative. This correlation can be observed always for all Turkish respondents, regardless of their education level. We may therefore deduce two main models of social relations demonstrated by Turks of all educational levels towards the Roma. The Turks fully accept Muslim Roma and characterize them by indicating entirely positive traits, while their attitude to Christian Roma consists in complete rejection and the ascription of mostly negative characteristics. This ambivalent attitude of Turks towards Roma of the two religions determines the overall ambivalence of the heterostereotype for the Roma and the lower degree of positive attitude compared with the self-stereotype of the Turks themselves; it allows us to define the model of social relations that the Turks demonstrate regarding the Roma as a generally tolerant one, with elements of departure from the “norm” in the direction of ethnocentrism, which reflects a more positive image of their own ethnic group compared with the other ethnic group. The stereotypes of the Roma Let us see what stereotypes the Roma build in response to the negative heterostereotype of them among Bulgarians and the ambivalent one among Turks, and the kinds of models of social relations this leads to. The selfstereotype of the Roma, similar to that of the Turks, and unlike the heterostereotypes that Bulgarians and Turks have of the Roma, is typically positive in value. Positive traits predominate, such as: kind, easy to get along with, hard-working, respectful of others, willing to help others, honest, merry, kind-hearted, talkative, generous of heart, “international people” (a notion by which they mean “open to others” but also “people who go abroad to seek employment”), hospitable, religious, not greedy, etc. Negative characteristics in the self-stereotype of the Roma are much fewer and reflect certain specific Albena Nakova 1211 features of their everyday life and culture, which, according to them, are imposed by the conditions of modern life: uneducated, unemployed, poor, as well as certain personal character traits: lying, bad-natured. What is specific here is that at higher levels of education the positive quality of the stereotype displayed by respondents also increases. And while the self-stereotype of Roma without education is entirely negative: uneducated, unemployed, backward, lacking self-confidence, etc., and the self-stereotypes of Roma with elementary, primary and secondary general education include a few negative characteristics in each educational category, such as: illiterate, unemployed, poor, bad, liars; the self-stereotype of Roma with secondary vocational education are entirely positive and contain not a single negative trait. (There were no Roma with a higher education within the random sample). Heterostereotypes among the Roma regarding Bulgarians, however, are marked by ambivalence, consisting in the presence of both positive and negative characteristics, which appear in the form of pairs of opposite traits, for instance: good and bad; good-natured and malicious, hard-working and lazy, tolerant and hostile, respectful of others and don’t respect others; this does not permit us to deduce an integral and consistent image among the Roma regarding the Bulgarian ethnic community. On the other hand, with the increase in education level the negative characteristics in the heterostereotype decrease and the positive quality of this stereotype increases. For instance, while the heterostereotypes of Roma with no education, with elementary and primary education, contain both positive and negative characteristics, such as: kind, educated, easy to get along with, clever, respectful of others, good friends, good Christians, hard-working, good-natured, tolerant, people with a profession, but along with this hard to get along with, mean, hostile, lazy, don’t respect others, etc., the heterostereotypes of Roma with secondary general and those with secondary vocational education contain only one negative self-characteristic in each category: bad-natured and secretive respectively; this characterizes these heterostereotypes as not ambivalent but positive. In any case, the positive selfstereotype displayed by the Roma, combined with their overall ambivalent heterostereotype regarding Bulgarians, displays an attitude of the Roma towards Bulgarians that we may define as tolerance with elements of a wounded ethnic pride, due to the combination of a positive self-image of their ethnic group with the realization they are not fully accepted by another ethnic group; hence they view that other group with negative overtones. Such a negative overtone is lacking in the heterostereotype indicated by the Roma regarding the Turks. It is notable that, although the heterostereotype of the Roma towards Turks contains both positive and negative traits, and although we may observe pairs of contrary traits, such as: easy to get along with and not easy to get along with, respectful of others and not respectful of others, willing to help others and 1212 Education and Ethnic Tolerance selfish, etc., nevertheless the positive traits predominate, which indicates a heterostereotype with a predominantly positive orientation. The degree of positivity increases with the level of education. For instance the heterostereotypes of Roma with no education, with elementary and with primary education, include traits like hard-working, progressive, good friends, respectful of others, willing to help others, tolerant, clever, educated, hospitable, honest, but also negative ones like: hard to get along with, arrogant, not respectful of others, envious, selfish. But in the heterostereotypes of Roma with secondary general and secondary vocational education negative characteristics are lacking. Moreover the characteristics stressed by the Roma with the two kinds of secondary education are mostly oriented to the social aspect: united, they stick by their cause, respect their leaders, etc. These specific features of the heterostereotype of Roma regarding Turks defines a model of social relations with respect to the Turkish community that is tolerant; the grounds for this conclusion are that they have an equally positive image of their own and of the other ethnic group. Conclusion And so, we find that education is significant for the model of social relations formed by the coexisting ethnic communities towards one another. In most cases a higher degree of education among a given ethnic group leads to a stronger degree of the general trend typical for the model that the ethnic community manifests toward the other community. We saw that the heterostereotype of a given ethnic community towards another is overall positive, and the higher level of education therefore leads to a higher positive value (the heterostereotype of Bulgarians towards Turks and of Roma towards Turks). The same is true for the heterostereotype of Roma towards Bulgarians, where, despite its ambivalence, a higher degree of education likewise correlates with more positive traits indicated. All this ultimately increases tolerance in the relationships between ethnic groups. The exceptions are those cases where strong negative heterostereotypes (those of the Bulgarians towards the Roma and of the Turks towards the Christian Roma) or strongly positive heterostereotypes (those of the Turks towards the Bulgarians and of the Turks towards the Muslim Roma) remain invariable, regardless of the attained educational level of the respondent. But this does not refute the fact that education can influence the character of the stereotypes and contribute to changing them, which in turn can be a factor for increasing or decreasing tolerance in relations between ethnic groups. That is why we believe that the strategies for optimizing the processes of social intercourse between different ethnic communities and for achieving ethnic tolerance in multi-ethnic societies must take into account the specific features of the stereotypes, as shaped in the Albena Nakova 1213 course of historical and social development, the role of the immediate social relations in which social communication is carried out, and also the educational factor, with its role for building more tolerant relations. References Kelley, H. 1950, The warm-cold variable in first impression of persons. Journal of Personality, 18:431-439. Ethical Values and Education Ercan Yılmaz, Selcuk University – Turkey Abstract While winds of change has been blowing too strong nowadays, ethic values has been appearing as an remarkable issue of societies. Because people often encounter a lot of moral problems like murder, usurpation, bribery and selfishness nowadays. Education process can’t treat this problem as if it didn’t exist. On contrary, education process must be a part of it. Both prepared program and the new roles which teachers take over must contribute to solutions of ethic problems which begins to extinct in society. Key words: Education, ethics, teacher Introduction The core of society formed by people united are some collective emotions and beliefs. By convening they compose the system called society. Shared ethical values are of remarkable importance in the emergence and improvement of societies. (Kizilcelik,1994:63). Modernization has caused a serious malady on the beliefs and the moral values which keep the society united. As a result of these and modernization process; murder, crime, divorce, committing suicide and mental disorders have increased dramatically. (Turkdogan,1996:82). Modernism has undermined the values of being human and living as a community. It holds a paradox on moral values. It requires the existence of certain moral understanding. However, it does not pave the road for implementing these moral values and expressing the values by action at the same time. On the contrary it has demolished the existing ones. (Poole,1993:9). As seen by the above statements, moral problem has become a remarkable issue nowadays. The solution to this moral problem lived among the each sector of the modern society is to attach the ethic values to society itself. The understanding of both ethic and moral is often mistaken. 1216 Ethical Values and Education Ethics Ethic stems from Greek ethos, meaning character. Morality comes from morality in Latin meaning tradition and custom. The notion of ethic generally perceived towards the characters of the individuals. Morality, however, is used in regards to people’s mutual relations. (Thiroux,1998). The goal of ethic is to found, interpret, and construct morality and its indispensable concepts such as goodness, evilness, virtue, happiness, moral personality and honorable life, thereby to establish the theory of morality.(Killioglu, 1990:10). Ethics is the body of moral principles and values which nobody could stand aside. It is distinctive on personal relations, social, cultural, political, economical, judicial, sciencetific and technological conduct, action and decisions. (TMMOB; 2003). These principles and values are important for being a community and its continuation as well as social processing. According to Gungor(1997) if human being wants piece and happiness in social life, he’ll need the basic ethical values. Therefore human being must recognise and obey these rules. This act is due to both the necessity of the community which the human being is part of it, and his own nature itself. Individual and Ethical Values Ethics is an inseparable piece of human being, because other’s feelings, thinkings and expectations are factors of choosing individual acts. Before expressing his actions while recognizing the possibilities of other actions, and not taking a move, and knowing the basis of his choice, human being is an entity of having ethic responsibilities (Özakpınar, 1999:72). Besides, human being must feel an ethic responsibility because of having a distinctive mental capacity to distinguish the good from the bad and the reality of living as a social community. Individual has to act in accordance with his ethic values either gained by birth or won later in life which form the relations with others established by the being on the social stage (Çiçek, 1998:36). Ethics is a stimulation that exist in human nature. Because of his own nature human being always wishes to see ethical behaviour. This ethical stimulation argue to see the necessity of individual deed. Which means truth for us should also be the truth for the others. The ethic impulse finds its basis in the human being, however it should apply for the other beings as well (Handy, 1998:117). As it’s shown above ethics is inseparable piece of human being. This inseparable piece is comprised with the following ethic values; • Honesty • Integrity Ercan Yılmaz • • • • • • • • 1217 Keep one's promise Fidelity Justice Charity Respect the others Having the responsibility of citizenship Looking for excellence Responsibility As a conclusion, ethics tries to shape the behaviours of human to seperate the good and the bad, positive and negative, apathy and conscience, (Türkmen, 1999) It is a necessity to act in accordance with humans’ nature,and to impose a moral life style and to get rid of selfishness and bad behaviours. (Carrel, 1997:101). Education and Ethical Values Education, as a personal development and an intentional action for gaining social adequateness, is a process of alteration for gaining some activities consisting of intellectual, emotional, social abilities, behaviours and knowledge (Gökçe, 2000). Education is a process of individual readiness in life. It has a crucial role in bringing ethical values in every aspect of life. Ethical values are the emotions owned by the individuals (Bacanlı,1999). Education must not be comprised by cognitive sphere but must consist of perceptional and behavioural capacities (Maslow, 1996). It’s a pity that the tendency in education nowadays is lacking values and moral judgements. It has gone so far that we are within an educational system blocking individual development (Dilmaç, 1999). Yet, schools must be centres for adding ethical values. By all means, the first step for ethical values education is within the family. Starting from the school age onward, teachers take the role of educating the individuals on values. Until the school age the values gained within the family are important for the process of education for children’s future life. Because of these facts the parents do not only choose schools for their children according to the academic success but the approach of the school authorities towards education and value systems (Taylor, 1996 ve Ungoed-Thomas, 1996). The principals interviewed identified a series of changes that have occurred over the last decade that they believe impact on the ethical climate of schools. These included the increasing commercialisation of schooling, school management being made more localised, the goals of schooling shifting towards measurable outcomes, and an increase in the power of parents and members of the general community in school decision-making (Dempster and Berry, 2003). 1218 Ethical Values and Education Virtue ethics emphasizes both ethical thought and ethical motivation. It incorporates reflection in encouraging a person to do the right thing for the right reason. As a tool for ethics education in accounting, reflective learning provides the link that may enhance ethical understanding and enable students to apply virtue and reflective thinking to a variety of situations discussed in accounting courses (Mintz, 2006). In ethic values education the crucial point is accepting the notion as a personal characteristic. For this reason if the education is given under conservative environment, you cannot go beyond imposition and conditioning. It is extremely important to be a role modal in ethic value training and accessing to those values via life experiences. At this level, the personality of the teachers, and ability to become a role model cause to be determiners (Çağlar, 2005). A number of authors have argued that ethical concerns should be central in considering approaches to teaching and schooling. (Weissbourd, 2003) Educators need to constantly invite discussions on the moral dimension of teaching. Beyer (1997) regarded teaching as a "field of reflective moral action" and urged teacher educators to provide "support for articulating alternative visions and practices that respect students' integrity as moral beings and their abilities as social agents." Martusewicz (2001, p.20) describes a global perception of ethical behaviors for teachers. "Ethics must be all teachers' willingness to constantly ask what our work means in relation to a whole range of social, political, and cultural forces, and our willingness to shift our behaviours, our beliefs, and our identities as we come to understand the implication of what we do as political, transformative work." The future of our country depends on our ability to prepare ethical and moral leaders for the future. The effecting power of the teacher has been studied as the most important factor (Küçükahmet,2000). Affection is an element existing within the nature of leadership. Teacher while using his effecting power should display a remarkable leadership behaviour (Çelik, 2002). Teacher is the leader giving his relentless support to those students whose characters, knowledge and emotional sides are to be perfected (Bostıngl, 2000). Therefore the teacher has to show ethical leader behaviours. Ethical leadership is having ethical values and associating them with action. (Cuilla, 1998:4). Ethical leadership has been also associated with accepting personal differences and their beliefs with no regard to prejudices and the variations among the characteristics of the people. (Josephson, 2001). According to Harvey(2004) the basic principles of being an ethical leader are given as follows: Ercan Yılmaz 1219 a) Being a model for the others regarding the ethical behaviours b) On the process of decision making, sticking on the ethical values and questioning the results in terms of ethical values. c) Forming the rules and politics with ethical basis d) Helping the ones around to have just and ethical behaviours e) While assigning, giving priority to the ones with ethical behaviours f) Being a guide concerning ethical behaviour Teacher, while practising such behaviours could help students to acquire ethical values. Teacher should attach importance to students’ own personal development. Here the character discipline of teachers leans forward. Through closed or open programme disciplining character helps the new generation gain humanistic manner and realise the notion of responsibilities and be alert towards the values. (Ryan & Bohlin, 1999 ve Ekşi, 2003). School teachers must be aware of the position during character disiplining process. (Anderson, 2000 ve Ekşi, 2003). By all means schools may affect habits, attitudes and behavious of the new generation. Schools should provide students alternative behaviours in order to make right decisions. They should help students to choose alternative options and form goals. It’s to everyone’s truth that the future of societies depend on well disiplined people with good character. Moreover human being do not obtain the good moral values spontaneously. Hence, equipping the individuals of all ages with skills and values which eventually help them to display convenient ethical decisions and behaviours are among the inevitable fundamental goals of schools. (Dilmaç, 2007). Conclusion Up to this time schools have not been aware of the fact that ethical and value disciplines are within their own realm of responsibility. (Dilmaç, 2007). In fact, nowadays there is a great need for individuals who have adopted and internalized the ethical values. For these reasons, while the education programs are being made, there should be more attention played on students own acquirements of ethical values. The teachers who apply these programs on their work should take more responsibilities for implementing ethical values on behalf of the students. They should be role models for the students through their ethical behaviours. They should pay more attention to character disiplining of the students. References Anderson, D. R. (2000). Character Education: Who is responsible? Journal of Instructional Psychology, 27 (3), 139-142. 1220 Ethical Values and Education Bacanlı, H. (1999). Duyuşsal Davranış Eğitimi. Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Beyer, L.E. (1997) The moral contours of teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 48(4), 245-253. Bostıngl, J.J.(2000). Kalite Okulları. (Çev. Hayal Köksal), İstanbul: Dünya Yayınları Carrel, A. (1997). İnsan Denen Meçhul. (Çev. Yunus Ender), İstanbul:Hayat Yayınları. Cuilla, J. B. (1998). Introduction. In J. B. Cuilla(Ed.), Ethics, The Heart of Leadership (pp. xv-xix). Westport, CT: Quorum Books. Çağlar, D.(2004). Üstün Yetenekli Çocukların Özellikleri. I. Üstün Yetenekli Çocuklar Kongresi Seçilmiş Makaleler Kitabı. İstanbul: Çocuk Vakfı Yayınları. Çelik, V. (2002).Sınıf Yönetimi, Ankara:Nobel Yayıncılık, Çiçek, H.(1998). Farklı Kültürlerin Birlikte Yaşama Formülü. İstanbul: Nesil Yayınları. Dempster, N., Berry, V. (2003). Blindfolded in a Minefield:principals’ ethical decision-making, Cambridge Journal of Education Vol. 33, No. 3, November 2003 Dilmaç, B.(1999). İlköğretim Öğrencilerine İnsani Değerler Eğitimi Verilmesi Ve Ahlaki Olgunluk Ölçeği İle Eğitimin Sınanması. Marmara Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul Dilmaç, B.(2007). Bir Grup Fen Lisesi Öğrencisine Verilen İnsani Değerler Eğitiminin İnsani Değerler Ölçeği İle Sınanması. Selçuk Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Konya Ekşi, H. (2003). Temel İnsani Değerlerin Kazandırılmasında Bir Yaklaşım: Karakter Eğitimi Programları. Değerler Eğitimi Dergisi, 1 (1), 79-96. Handy, C. (1989). Süper Yönetim. İstanbul: İlgi Yayıncılık. Harvey, E. (2004). Liderlik ve Etik, Executive Excellence Dergisi. Haziran, s.24. Gökçe F. (2000): Değişme Sürecinde Devlet ve Eğitim. İstanbul:Sistem Yayıncılık. Ercan Yılmaz 1221 Josephson, M. (2001). Making Ethical Decisions. Josephson Institute of Ethics. Erişim Tarihi:15.04.2003. World Wide Web: http: // www.josephsoninstitute Güngör, E.(1997). Sosyal Ahlak ve Ahlak Psikolojisi. İstanbul: Ötüken Yayınları. Kıllıoğlu, İ. (1988). Ahlak- Hukuk İlişkişi. İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi İFAV Yayını. Kızılçelik, S.(1994). Sosyoloji Teorileri. Konya: Emre Yayınları. Küçükahmet, L. (2000). Öğretmenlik Mesleğine Giriş, Ankara:Nobel Yayıncılık Martusewicz, R. (2001). Seeking passage: Post-structuralism, pedagogy, ethics. N.Y. N.Y.: Teachers College Press. Maslow, A.H. (1996). Dinler, Değerler, Doruk Deneyimler (çev. H.K. Sönmez). İstanbul: Kuraldışı Yayınevi Mintz, S.(2006). Accounting ethics education: Integrating reflective learning and virtue ethics, Journal of Accounting Education , . Ed. 24 (2006) 97– 117 Özakpınar,Y.(1999). İnsan İnanan Bir Varlık. İstanbul: Ötüken Yayınları. Poole, Ross.(1993). Ahlak ve Modernlik. İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Ryan, K., S Bohlin, K. E. (1999). Building character in schools. San Francisco: Josey-Bass Publishers. Thiroux, J. (1998). Ethics Theory and Practise, R.R. Donneley& Sons Company, New Jersey. Taylor, M.J. (1996). Voicing their Values: Pupils’ Mora and Cultural Experience. Values in Education and Education in Values(Ed. J.M. Halstead ve M.J. Taylor). London: Falmer Pres. TMMOB (2003). Elektrik Mühendisleri Odası Etik Komisyonu(2003). Etik, Ahlak ve Mesleki Davranış İlkeleri, Haziran, Ankara, 2003, s.3. Türkmen, İ. (1996). Yönetimde Verimlilik. Ankara: MPK Yayınları . Türkdoğan, Orhan.(1996). Değişme Kültür ve Sosyal Çözülme. İstanbul: Birleşik Yayıncılık. 1222 Ethical Values and Education Ungoed-Thomas, J. (1996). Vision, Values and Virtues. Values in Education and Education in Values(Ed. J.M. Halstead ve M.J. Taylor). London: Falmer Pres. Weissbourd, R. (2003 March). Moral teachers, moral students Education Leadership 60. 6, 6-11. European Tools for Lifelong Learning and Lifelong Mobility: The Role of Cedefop16 Irene Psifidou, European Centre for the Development of Vocational Education and Training – Greece Abstract To move mobility barriers and facilitate access to further education and lifelong learning are main priority areas within the Lisbon strategy17 (Council of the European Union, 2000) which addresses the need for a competitive knowledge-based economy and a socially cohesive society. Today more and more European countries recognise the need for making their systems more flexible, in particular for people who have less access to lifelong learning. This is particularly important for adults who need to update their skills at various stages of their lives and currently find it difficult to access training or to progress and have their learning valued. To this end, the European Commission and Member States acknowledge the need to strengthen national guidance and counselling services as well as to increase transparency, transfer and recognition of qualifications, independently whether these are awarded within formal, non-formal and in-formal learning settings. This paper aims to present and analyse how European tools, such as the single Community framework for the transparency of qualifications and competences (Europass), the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) and the European Credit system for Vocational Education and Training (ECVET), 16 This paper has been drafted by Dr. Irene Psifidou, project manager at Cedefop to be published in the Conference’s proceedings “Further Education in the Balkan Countries”, 23-26 October 2008, Konya, Turkey. 17 Council of the European Union. Presidency conclusions: Lisbon European Council, 23 and 24 March 2000. Available from Internet: http://ec.europa.eu/growthandjobs/councils_en.htm . 1224 European Tools for Lifelong Learning and Lifelong Mobility: The Role of Cedefop initiated by the Commission and supported by Cedefop18, may increase the transparency of qualifications in Europe and thus facilitate access to and progression in lifelong learning. Key words: European tools, lifelong learning, transparency of qualifications, mobility, access. Introduction: The Political Mandate In a Europe characterised by rapid technological and economic change and an ageing population, lifelong learning has become a necessity. The need for a continuous renewal of citizens' knowledge, skills and competences is crucial for the EU's competitiveness and social cohesion. While today there is a broad consensus about the need for lifelong learning, its realisation however is complicated by the lack of communication and co-operation between education and training providers/authorities at different levels and in different countries. The resulting barriers hinder individual citizens from accessing education and training and from combining qualifications from different institutions. They make it difficult for citizens to move within the European labour market and to pursue genuine lifelong and lifewide learning (i.e. through all levels of education and training and using formal, non-formal and informal learning). Consequently, the Lisbon European Council in 2000 concluded that increased transparency of qualifications and lifelong learning should be two of the main components in the efforts to adapt Europe's education and training systems both to the demands of the knowledge society and to the need for an improved level and quality of employment (Council of the European Union, 2000). This was further underlined by the Barcelona European Council in 2002 which - as an element in the strategy to make European education and training a world quality reference by 2010 - called for the introduction of instruments to ensure the transparency of qualifications. Thus, the development of common European tools, frameworks and principles aimed at enhancing transparency and quality of competences and qualifications, and facilitating mobility of learners and workers became a central priority within the Copenhagen Process on Enhanced European Cooperation in Vocational Education and Training. This paper aims to present and analyse how European tools and frameworks, as well as common European principles and guidelines supporting validation of non-formal and informal learning, lifelong guidance and quality assurance initiated by the Commission and supported by Cedefop (the European Centre for 18 Cedefop is the European Centre for the development of Vocational Education and Training. The official website of the Centre are: http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/ and www.trainingvillage.gr Irene Psifidou 1225 the development of Vocational Education and Training)19, may increase the transparency of qualifications in Europe and thus facilitate access to and progression in lifelong learning. Vocational Education and Training Central to Lifelong Learning Based on Cedefop’s recent study on forecasting medium terms skill needs, between 2006 and 2020, Europe is expected to generate a total of 20 million more jobs. More than 19 million new jobs will require qualifications at the highest levels; another 13 million will require post-secondary level, especially vocational qualifications. These increases will be offset by a sharp fall in jobs for Europeans with low-level qualifications. Such jobs, which accounted for a third of all employment in 1996, will make up less than a fifth of the total by 2020 (Cedefop, 2008a). In the same time, around 30% of the European working-age population, approximately 80 million people, have only basic qualifications. Moreover, by 2009 there will be more people in the European workforce aged 54 to 64 than young people aged 15 to 24 – a worrying trend given that the pace of technological change requires new skills and older workers are far less likely to participate in continuing training and lifelong learning. For Europe to raise skills levels and address the problems of an ageing workforce with low skills, its education and training systems have to improve. Reforming vocational education and training is central to European strategies for lifelong learning, employment, long-term competitiveness and social cohesion. To develop the right policies, we need to understand how our economies, societies and people are changing. We also need to know more about what, where, when, why and how we learn. Policies related to vocational education and training are decided by the Member States; but the EU supports these policies by establishing shared objectives, common principles and tools, and useful guidelines and recommendations. European Policy Initiatives for Increasing Transparency of Qualifications Several initiatives have been taken at EU level over the past two decades to increase transparency, support transfer and facilitate the valuing of learning outcomes. Despite these initiatives though, the mid-term review of the Lisbon strategy in 2005 concluded that many of the challenges of the knowledge 19 The official websites of the Centre are: http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/ and www.trainingvillage.gr 1226 European Tools for Lifelong Learning and Lifelong Mobility: The Role of Cedefop society and economy that education and training systems seek to fulfil, are currently not being met. In particular, in the context of this paper, important barriers remain to the achievement of lifelong learning and to learner and worker mobility. According to Eurostat figures, only around 2% of EU-25 citizens live and work in different Member States from their country of origin –a proportion that has hardly changed the last 30 years. Also, according to the Commission’s Eurobarometer study which interviewed around 24 000 EU citizens in September 2005 about mobility issues reports that despite responders largely recognise that mobility can help job prospects, the large majority of Europeans (70%) have no intention of moving in the near future (European Commission, 2006). To increase participation in lifelong learning and ensure smooth mobility of learners and workers in the European labour market, the need was felt to develop further instruments and cooperation mechanisms which facilitate transfer of qualifications between institutions, systems and countries. To this end, the European Commission supported by Cedefop developed the Europass framework for the transparency of qualifications and competences, the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) for lifelong learning and the European Credit system for Vocational Education and Training (ECVET). Europass The Europass framework for the transparency of qualifications and competences was introduced in January 2005. Europass is a portfolio of five instruments (Curriculum Vitae (CV), Language Passport, Europass Mobility, Certificate Supplement and Diploma Supplement) aiming to help European citizens make their skills and qualifications clearly and easily understood on the labour market and in education and training. Its ultimate goal is to facilitate mobility for all those wishing to work or receive education and training anywhere in Europe. The Europass website (http://europass.cedefop.europa.eu), developed by Cedefop at the request of the Commission, is available in 26 languages and addresses half a billion citizens. The web site registered over 12 millions visits since its launch in February 2005, a figure that brings in evidence the popularity of Europass among citizens (European Commission, 2008a). 1227 Irene Psifidou Figure 2: Visits on the Europass website (2005 -2008) 2005 Europass website visits per month (2005-2008) 2006 700,000 2007 2008 600,000 Visits 500,000 400,000 300,000 200,000 100,000 D ec em be r N ov em be r O ct ob er Months Se pt em be r Ju ly Au gu st Ju ne M ay Ap ril M ar ch Fe br ua ry Ja nu ar y 0 Source: Cedefop statistics Today Europass is implemented in 32 countries (European Union and European Economic Area) and in every country, a National Europass Centre (NEC) coordinates all activities related to the Europass documents and ensures its promotion at national and international levels. European Qualifications Framework (EQF) The European Qualifications Framework (EQF) is designed to serve as a translation device between different qualifications systems and their levels, whether for general and higher education or for vocational education and training. Functioning as a meta-framework, EQF makes it possible to position and compare qualifications through learning outcomes. Its main core components are a set of European reference levels described in terms of learning outcomes located in a structure of eight levels, supported by a range of tools, instruments and common principles. By learning outcomes is meant the “statements of what an individual knows, understands or is able to do at the end of a learning process”- regardless of the system where a particular qualification was acquired- described as knowledge, skills and competences (European Parliament/Council, 2008). The EQF reference levels therefore shift the focus away from the traditional approach, which emphasises learning inputs - the questions of when, where and how learning takes place - which have decided the nature, significance and level of qualifications. Shifting the focus to learning outcomes is crucial for VET systems and qualifications as it: 1228 European Tools for Lifelong Learning and Lifelong Mobility: The Role of Cedefop supports a better match between the needs of the labour market (for knowledge, skills and competences) and education and training provisions; facilitates the validation of non-formal and informal learning; facilitates the transfer and use of qualifications across different countries and education and training systems. As an instrument for the promotion of lifelong learning, the EQF encompasses general and adult education, vocational education and training, as well as higher education. The eight levels cover the entire span of qualifications from those achieved at the end of compulsory education to those awarded at the highest level of academic and professional or vocational education and training. The common principles encompassing EQF provide guidelines for cooperation between stakeholders at different levels and notably in: quality assurance, building on the Common Quality Assurance Framework in VET and the Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in Higher Education; validation of non-formal and informal learning, based on the common European principles on identification and validation of non formal and informal learning (Cedefop, 2007c); guidance, building on the Council Resolution on lifelong guidance (Council of the European Union, 2004) and the policy makers’ handbook on policies for lifelong guidance published in 2005; and the 8 key competences: communication in mother tongue, communication in another language, basic competences in maths, science and technology, digital competences, learning to learn, interpersonal and civic competences, entrepreneurship and cultural expression (European Parliament and Council, 2006). The EQF has been adopted by the European Parliament in April 2008 (European Parliament and Council, 2008), and since its conception, has encouraged many Member States to reform their national systems, developing mechanisms for validation of learning and devising their own national qualifications frameworks20 to link to it (Cedefop, 2007a). 20 A National qualifications framework is defined as “An instrument for the development and classification of qualifications (e.g. at national or sectoral level) according to a set of criteria (e.g. using descriptors) applicable to specified levels of learning outcomes” (European Parliament/ Council, 2008). Irene Psifidou 1229 European Credit system for Vocational Education and Training (ECVET) After almost six years of preparation, the European Commission released in 2008 its final proposal to the European Council and Parliament for approving the European Credit system for Vocational Education and Training (ECVET) (European Commission, 2008b). The proposed ECVET is a mechanism designed to facilitate learners’ mobility by supporting cooperation among partner organisations in the international accumulation and transfer of credit for learning outcomes in VET. It can be regarded as an international exchange device, operating across and between qualification systems that may or may not have internal credit system arrangements. It is intended to provide a means of enabling credit earned for learning in various contexts to be transferred, accumulated and recognised on a fair and consistent basis. The ECVET makes use of the European Qualifications Framework as a reference grid for qualifications. Cedefop setting the scene for European tools Cedefop, as the EU’s agency supporting and strengthening European cooperation in VET policy development, is playing a key role to support the European Commission, the Member States and the social partners in developing common policies for vocational education and training. Founded in 1975 and being one of the oldest regulatory EU agencies, Cedefop has contributed substantially to the design, conceptual development and practical implementation of the European instruments and principles. The Centre has built up a considerable body of research and in-house expertise prior to the creation of the tools, principles and frameworks and has provided scientific and substantial support in their conceptual development. Substantial support was provided to the European Forum on Transparency of qualifications – jointly set up by Cedefop and the Commission in 1998 – which established the basis for a European strategy on transparency of qualifications, today reflected in instruments like the Europass, ECVET and EQF. In the case of the latter two, Cedefop has played a key role in all activities since 2003 forging the EQF and ECVET concepts and contributing to the long-term development and implementation of the frameworks. In addition to providing scientific advice and expertise for supporting the political/institutional process lead by the Commission, Cedefop carries out independent comparative studies, research and analysis in a number of areas which are not sufficiently covered. The outcomes of these activities feed directly into ongoing political and institutional processes at European, national and sectoral level. Thus, by helping to identify relevant themes and emerging issues, Cedefop can be at the forefront of debate on developments in VET and 1230 European Tools for Lifelong Learning and Lifelong Mobility: The Role of Cedefop can contribute to setting the EU VET policy and research agenda. Having played a key role in shaping the conceptual framework, policy focus and operational methodology of the tools, today the Centre contributes significantly to monitor and support their successful implementation. Conclusions European tools and frameworks are bringing in a stronger European and international dimension to the development of national VET systems. This is particularly important for adults who need to update their skills at various stages of their lives and currently find it difficult to access training or to progress and have their learning valued. European tools initiated and supported by the European Commission and Cedefop are continuously developed under the ultimate goal to enhance lifelong learning and to increase European mobility. Europass has shown a successful present and a prominent future, EQF is on very good truck to be implemented in many European countries, while the introduction of ECVET is being supported by most of the European countries. While developments have been rapid until this stage, the real challenges involved for making lifelong learning and for removing barriers to learner and worker mobility a reality for individual citizens lie ahead of us. The big question, following from all the above, is whether anything of this will ever make any real difference for individual learners? Which are the implications of the learning outcomes approach for the man and the woman in the street; the lifelong learners? Policy analysis and impact assessment at national and European levels will be crucial in the near future for being able to reply to these questions. References Cedefop, 2007a. “Zooming in on 2010: Reassessing vocational education and training” available at: http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/ Information_resources/Bookshop/474/4060_en.pdf Cedefop. 2007b. Conference proceedings on European credit transfer system for vocational education and training: The European social partners conference on the ECVET, Thessaloniki. http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/index.asp?section =3&read=2427 Cedefop, 2007c. “Validation of non-formal and informal learning in Europe: A snapshot 2007” available at : http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/ Information_resources/Bookshop/493/4073_en.pdf Irene Psifidou 1231 Cedefop, 2008a. “Future skill needs in Europe. Medium-term forecast: synthesis report” available at: http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/ Information_resources/Bookshop/485/4078_en.pdf Cedefop, 2008b. “The shift to learning outcomes: policies and practices in Europe” available at: http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/ Information_resources/Bookshop/494/4079_en.pdf Council of the European Union. 2000. Presidency conclusions: Lisbon European Council, 23 and 24 March. Council of the European Union. 2004. Draft Resolution of the Council and of the representatives of the Member States meeting within the Council on Strengthening Policies, Systems and Practices in the field of Guidance throughout life in Europe. 9286/04, Brussels. European Commission. 2006. Eurobarometer survey on geographic and labour market mobility. Europeans and mobility: first results of an EU-wide. European Commission. 2008a. Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, First evaluation report on the implementation of the Europass initiative. European Commission. 2008b. Proposal for a Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the establishment of the European Credit System for Vocational Education and Training (ECVET) [SEC(2008) 442 SEC(2008) 443] Brussels, 9.4.2008 COM(2008) 180 final 2008/0070 (COD). European Parliament/Council. 2006. Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council 18 December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning. In Official Journal of the European Union, L 394/11, 31.12.2006, p. 1-9. European Parliament/Council. 2008. Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council 23 April 2008 on the establishment of the European Qualifications Framework for lifelong learning. In Official Journal of the European Union, C 111, 6.5.2008, p. 1-7. Evaluation of Problem Solving Ability of Prospective Primary School Teachers Işıl Sönmez Ektem, Mehmet Şahin, Perihan Ünüvar, Sabahattin Çiftçi Selcuk University – Turkey Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine problem-solving abilities of pre – service teachers of primary school. The sampling of the study consisted of 132 students attending to University of Selçuk, Faculty of Education, Department of Primary School Teaching at 2007 – 2008 educational year. A significant difference was found between problem solving abilities of the students and their genders and levels of grades while no significant difference was found between the types of high school students graduated and their abilities of problem solving at the end of the study Key words: Problem solving ability, pre – service teacher Introduction People face problems throughout their lives. The number of problems experienced in the process when individuals try hard to adapt to their environment, and within a society having a gradually more complex structure is becoming higher. Within this process of adaptation, the belief of individual in his ability to solve problems and his skill to solve problems will enable him to become an individual in the community he lives in. The ability to solve problems is one of the basic needs of a person in order to maintain his/her existence. Therefore, making individuals acquire skills to overcome the problems they might face in the future is among the immediate objectives of education. 1234 Evaluation of Problem Solving Ability of Prospective Primary School Teachers In general sense, problem is a complex case with a vague result. Within this perspective, problem solving is unveiling the vagueness in the mind of man (Öcalan, 2004, p.41). According to Altun (2000, p.1), it is a hard or a vague question. He is unready to find the solution but is willing. This definition reveals three basic features of problem. These are: 1) that the problem is a difficulty for the person facing it, 2) that he needs to solve it, and 3) that he faced it before hand and has no preparation to solve it. Problem solving is the process of overcoming problems faced in obtaining a purpose and this can be defined as the process of finding the solution by using knowledge, adding originality, creativity and imagination to this process. Thus, problem solving is a mental process at the highest level (Tertemiz and Çakmak, 2002, p.12). Kabadayı (1992, p.32, 33) studied the dimensions the problemsolving process will follow in education. To him, problem solving is a) a scientific feature or a behaviour; b) an emotional feature; and c) a method, a living. The success of individuals at the process of problem solving is associated with their needs, their moral values, their beliefs and attitudes. Fisher (1990; Akt; Akay, 2006) categorized the factors that are effective at the process of problem solving in three groups. These are; 1- Attitude (stress, interest, motivation, trust and anxiety), 2- Experience (age, prior knowledge, familiarity with solution strategies, familiarity with the problem), 3- Scientific ability (memory, ability to read, critical thinking skills, creative thinking skills, being aware of what is known) According to Heppner, problem solving is equal to the concept of coping with problems. To Heppner, problem solving in daily life is regarded to direct such cognitive and perceptive processes as behavioural responses with a purpose to adapt to inner or outer desires or stimuli (Heppner, 1987; Akt. Özsoy, 2005, p.47). As the objective is the solution of the problem, it is fairly significant for individuals to be effective in reaching this goal. While effective people in problem solving try hard until they reach the solution after the analysis of the problem, some others give up solving the problem easily. It was cited in a study by Schoenfeld (1987; Akt. Gourgey, 1998: 82) that unsuccessful students choose their strategy to solve problems so quickly and they devote more time to practice, and that they rarely stop to evaluate themselves to check whether they are to reach their goal. The lack of perseverance and control in these students lead them to spend more time to reach the goal and thus they choose a wrong strategy; even if they have enough knowledge to solve the problem, they fail to solve the problem. As for successful ones, they devote most of their time to problem analysis to be sure Işıl Sönmez Ektem, Mehmet Şahin, Perihan Ünüvar, Sabahattin Çiftçi 1235 whether they comprehend the problem well enough or not. They try many approaches, they control whether their strategy works, they change their strategy if necessary and they evaluate themselves throughout their activities. As a result of all these efforts, they reach the result more quickly and effectively. According to Whimbey and Lockhead (1986), successful ones at problem solving put an effort to understand the data at a problem and the relation between them, they control whether their process of solving a problem goes on well, they change a complex problem into more simple steps, they never make predictions if they have no reason, they redefine the problem in terms of inner and outer relations (they represent the problem) and they ask questions to themselves and answer them in order to clarify their ideas. Consistent with the results of the research above, Whimbey and Lockhead (1981; Akt. Yılmaz) classified the types of mistakes students do as follows: failure in understanding the problem, failure in thinking, carelessness at problem analysis and being inactive, and lack of patience. In order to achieve success in problem solving, judgments, beliefs, attitudes and needs of an individual are of vital importance, as well as knowing the process and strategies leading to solution well. The desire and courage of individual to solve the problem, his tendency toward the problem and his selfesteem in solving the problem are in parallel with his skills to solve the problem. Solving problem is getting more significance at education. The biggest responsibility in making students obtain the skills to solve problems is on teachers. Their own attitudes, skills and behaviours of teachers in making students attain these skills are of great importance, as well as using suitable methods and environments. Such a case requires that teachers themselves should have problem solving skills. The Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to present whether the problem solving skills of prospective teachers has significant difference depending on such variables as gender, level of grades and the previous education type. 1- Do the problem solving skills of prospective teachers change depending on their gender? 2- Do the problem solving skills of prospective teachers change depending on their level of grade? 3- Do the problem solving skills of prospective teachers change depending on the previous school type? 1236 Evaluation of Problem Solving Ability of Prospective Primary School Teachers Method Population The population of the study consisted of prospective teachers attending the Department of Primary School Teacher training, Faculty of Education, of Selcuk University. Sampling The sampling of the study consisted of 132 prospective teachers having an education at the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th grades of the Faculty of Education. The features of the prospective teachers included in the research was given in Table 1 and Table 2: Table 1: Genders of the students included in the sampling Gender f % Female 62 47 Male 70 53 Total 132 100 Of the students in the sample group, the rate of females was 47% and that of males was 53%. The dispersion depending on the genders of the prospective teachers is balanced as given in Table 1. Table 2: Grade Levels of the students included in the sampling Grades f % 1 38 28,8 2 30 22,7 3 29 22,0 4 35 26,5 Total 132 100,0 The dispersion depending on the grades of the students is balanced as given in Table 2. Those having the highest percentage are the first grade students while their percentages are very near to each other. Data Collection Tool Problem Solving Inventory developed by Heppner and Peterson (1982) was used in order to determine the problem solving skills of prospective teachers in the current study. Scores varying from 1 to 6 were designated for the answers 1237 Işıl Sönmez Ektem, Mehmet Şahin, Perihan Ünüvar, Sabahattin Çiftçi given to the scale that consisted of 35 items. The score interval to be gathered in the inventory ranged from 32 to 192. The high score obtained from the scale indicates that the individual perceives oneself insufficient in the skills of problem solving. The validity and reliability of the scale developed by Heppner and Peterson in 1982 was studied by Nail Şahin, Nesrin Şahin and Paul Heppner with an adaptation into Turkish. Inner consistency Cronbach Alfa coefficient of the scale was found .88 and the realiability coefficient of it through the technique of dividing into two was found .81 (Savaşır and Şahin, 1997, p.79 – 83; akt. Yıldız, 2003). Analysis of the Data The data collected through the scale was analysed on computer using SPSS. In the analysis of the data, t test was used concerning the difference between the means. Each score the student obtained at the scale and frequency, percentage and arithmetical means of the data were calculated. In order to know the grades of prospective teachers, the type of high school they graduated, the status of education of their parents and whether the scores they got at the scale were significant, One Way Variance Analysis (ANOVA) was applied; the significance of the difference between the variables of gender and the scores obtained was analysed through t test. Findings, Comment and Discussion In this part, the findings regarding the problem solving skills, gender, grades and the graduated schools of the students attending the Department of Primary School Teaching of the Faculty of Education, the University of Selçuk were given. The findings obtained were arranged and given depending on the subproblems of the research. 1. Does the skills of problem solving of the prospective teachers change depending on their gender? Table 3: T Test Results of Problem Solving Scores Depending on Gender Gender n X s Male 62 3,6 1,18 Female 70 4,1 1,18 t Sd p -2,788 130 0,006 It is clear from the Table 3 that the problem solving skills of prospective teachers differed significantly depending on their gender (p<.05). As shown in 1238 Evaluation of Problem Solving Ability of Prospective Primary School Teachers the table, the difference between the problem solving skills was in favour of male students. (The fact that the scores obtained at the scale is high means that the problem solving skills of the student is low. 3.6<4.1). This result complies with the results of the research by Pakaslahti et al. (2000). That the problem solving skills of male students is higher could be related to the fact that male students are better at problem solving than female students. 2. Does the skills of problem solving of the prospective teachers change depending on their grades? Table 4: One Way Variance Analysis (ANOVA) of the Problem Solving Scores of Prospective Teachers over the Difference According to the Grades. The Source of the Variance Total Squares sd Mean of Squares Inter-groups 137,835 3 45,945 In-groups 31,364 128 ,245 Total 169,198 131 F P 187,508 ,000 It is clear from the table that the problem solving skills of prospective teachers differed significantly depending on their grades. Scheffe test was applied in order to see between what grades and in favour of what grades this significant difference occurred and the results were presented in Table 5. Table 5: Scheffe Test Results of Problem Solving Scores Depending on Grades Grades 1 1 2 3 4 -2,59695* -2,22205* -1,24980* ,37490* 1,34714* 2 2,59695* 3 2,22205* -,37490* 4 1,24980* -1,34714 ,97225* -,97225* Depending on Scheffe test, a significant difference was found between 2nd grade student and 1st, 3rd and 4th grade students, and in favour of 2nd grade students; between 3rd grade students and 1st and 4th grade students, and in favour of 3 grade student; between 4th grade student and 1st grade students, and in favour of 4th grade students. 1239 Işıl Sönmez Ektem, Mehmet Şahin, Perihan Ünüvar, Sabahattin Çiftçi 3. Does the skills of problem solving of the prospective teachers change depending on the high school graduated? Table 6: One Way Variance Analysis (ANOVA) of the Problem Solving Scores of prospective Teachers over the Difference According to the school type they graduated. The Source of the Variance Total Squares sd Mean of Squares 4,415 3 1,472 Ingroup 164,784 128 1,287 Total 169,198 131 Inter-group F P 1,143 ,334 The fact that the problem solving skills of the prospective teachers attending the Department of Primary School Teaching did not differ according to the high school they graduated was given in Table 6 (p<.05). This result shows that the type of high school they graduated did not differ in their perception of problem solving skills. Results and Recommendations In the current study aiming at examining the problem solving skills of the prospective teachers attending the Department of Primary School Teaching at the Faculty of Education of the University of Selçuk, gender and grades of the participants created a significant difference in their perception of the problem solving skills. As for the type of high school they graduated, it did not differ significantly in the evaluation of their problem solving skills. The purpose of education is to train curious, researching and exploring individuals. It is required that problem solving skills should be highlighted at every stage during education within the framework of this purpose. Teachers have a great responsibility and duty in making the future generations attain these skills and such a case requires that teachers have problem solving skills. In the current study, where there is a significant difference between the gender and grades of prospective teachers and their problem solving skills, the reasons of these differences were tried to explain and it is recommended that other studies should be carried out aiming at eliminating the differences. References Akay, H. (2006). A Study into the Effect of Math Teaching Applied through the Approach of Problem Thinking on the Academic Success of Students Problem Solving Skills and their Creativity, Doctorate Thesis, Gazi University, Institute of Educational Sciences 1240 Evaluation of Problem Solving Ability of Prospective Primary School Teachers Altun, M. (2000). İlköğretimde Problem Çözme Öğretimi. Journal of Milli Eğitim, Issue: 147,downloaded from the address of http://www.egitim.aku.edu.tr/altun.htm on December 10, 2006. r. Gourgey, A. F. (1998). Metacognition in Basic Skills Instruction. Journal Not Defined 26, Pages: 81-96, 1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Printed in Netherlands Kabadayı , R. (1992). Problem Çözme Süreci, Gereği ve Eğitimdeki Boyutları. Öğretmen Dünyası, Issue: 146, Ankara: Nüve Printing House Öcalan, T. (2004). İlköğretimde Matematik Öğretimi. Ankara: Yeryüzü Printing House Özsoy, G.(2005). Problem Çözme Becerisi ile Matematik Başarısı Arasındaki İlişki. Journal of Faculty of Gazi Education, V: 25, Issue; 3, Page; 179190 Pakaslahti, L., Karjalainan A., Keltikongas J.L. (2002). Relationships Between Adolescent Prosocial Problem Solving Strategies, Prosocial Behavior and Social Acceptance, International Journal of Behavioral Development, 26 (2); 137-144 Tertemiz, N. ve M. Çakmak (2002). Problem Çözme, İlköğretim I. Kademe Matematik Dersi Örnekleriyle. Ankara: Gündüz Education and Publishing Whimbey, A. and J. Lockhead (1986). Problem Solving and Comprehension Hillsdale, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Yıldız, S.A. (2003). An Empirical Study into the Development of the Problem Solving Skills of Parents, Doctorate Thesis, Istanbul University, Institute of Social Sciences Yılmaz, H. B. (1997). Effects of Metacognitive Training on Seventh Grade Students’ Problem Solving Performance, The Degree of Master of Science, Graduate Program in Secondary School Science and Mathematics Education, Boğaziçi University Evaluation of the Supervised Practice of Students Specializing in the Field of ‘Continuing Education’ Anastasia A. Pampouri, Evdokia-Theoni Mitropoulou, University of Macedonia – Greece Abstract The aim of this paper is to evaluate the Practice conducted by students specializing in the field of ‘Continuing Education’ at the Department of Educational and Social Policy of the University of Macedonia, Greece. Evaluation was based on data collected with self-report questionnaires given to students, who completed their Practice in the academic years 2005-06 and 200607. The Practice evaluation had an internal formative nature, aiming mainly at investigating different aspects of the Practice, such as whether its objectives and students’ expectations were fulfilled, the adequacy of Practice duration, its content and sector suitability, the degree of students’ satisfaction derived from their cooperation with the sector, their supervisor and the University team assisting the Practice. The general satisfaction degree, concerning the Practice as a whole, was 3,82 for the year 2005-2006 and 4,07 for the year 2006-07, a fact showing that Practice is continuously improving to meet the needs of the students and to fulfill the aim and objectives of the Practice. Key words: Practice programme, tertiary education, internal evaluation. Introduction This paper illustrates the evaluation of the Practice of students specializing in the field of ‘Continuing Education’ at the Department of Educational and Social Policy, University of Macedonia, Greece. This evaluation was based on data collected with questionnaires given to the students during the academic years 2005-06 and 2006-0721. 21 Two programmes of Practice were offered at the Department: the former from the academic year 2000-01 until 2004-05 and the later from 2005-06 to 2007-08, 1242 Evaluation of the Supervised Practice of Students Specializing The aim of the research was to investigate and compare the student’s opinions on their participation in the Practice. Specifically, the following were examined: 1. To what degree were the students satisfied with the structure of their Practice? 2. Was the sector responsible for this Practice appropriate for the aim and objectives of the Practice? 3. To what degree were the students satisfied with the support and guidance they received by the Department? 4. How effective was the Practice, according to the students? Evaluation was first enforced after the Second World War. It was practiced by international organizations, such as the UNESCO, in the cases of programmes of educational financing, as well as by services of the European Union for the funded European educational and training programmes (Vergides, 2001: 40). From a theoretical and methodological viewpoint, the concept of evaluation has become the major study in international literature for the past forty years (Vitsilaki, 2001: 301). According to the OECD definition (1997) and that of Rowntree (1998)22, evaluation contributes to the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of information, which relates to various aspects of a policy, an organisation or a programme. The aim of evaluation is to access their effectiveness and efficiency, so that we can take measures for their improvement and the best distribution of resources. a period when the Department’s Practice was integrated into the subsided programme ‘Practice in Tertiary Education’ in the context of EPEAEK II – 3rd Phase, with a 75% co-funding from the European Union (European Social Fund) and a 25% from National Resources (Ministry of Education and Religion/EYD EPEAEK). 22 According to the OECD definition (1997), “evaluations are systematic analyses of the most important aspects of a policy, an organization or a programme, with an emphasis on the result validity and the possibility of using them. The main aim of evaluations is to contribute to improving decisionmaking for resource distribution and the levels of responsibility” (Vergides, 2001: 41). According to Rowntree’s definition (1998), “we can define evaluation as the collection, analysis and interpretation of information for any aspect of an educational-training programme with an aim to ascertain its effectiveness and efficiency or the evaluation of any parameters relating to its implementation” (Koustourakis & Panayiotakopoulos, 2001: 350). Anastasia A. Pampouri, Evdokia-Theoni Mitropoulou 1243 In Greece, there was not until recently a systematic evaluation structure in Tertiary Education. Nevertheless, some evaluation researches have been conducted in greek university Departments, such as: a) the one conducted by the University of Patras in co-operation with the Greek Open University, aiming at the implementation of an internal evaluation system and the continuous improvement of education’s quality (Koustourakis & Panayiotakopoulos, 2001: 349-357) and b) that conducted by the University of Macedonia, Department of Educational and Social Policy, aiming at the appreciation of the quality of the studies’ programme of ‘Continuing Education’ and its connection to the labour market (Sipitanou et al, 2005: 360). Concerning the research on Practice in Tertiary Education, a scientific dialogue has been enlounged for more than the past fifteen years between the Educational Departments of Primary and Nursery Education, starting out from a scientific symposium which took place at the University of Aegean. Since Practice is a mandatory subject in these Departments, symposium mainly aimed at the enrichment of literature and research in this field, at the establishment of a functional connection between university and school (theory and practice) and their mutual feedback so that students prepare themselves more efficiently and work more effectively as professionals in Primary Education (Filippou & Kaila, 19994: 7-10). Recently in Greece, under the law N. 3374/2005, quality assurance in Higher Education was established, in the framework of which the Institutions of Higher Education themselves, through self-evaluation, take responsibility for the evaluation of their work using systematic procedures, in which students also participate (Hellenic Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education, 20073: 2). Analytical Framework of the Research The evaluation of the students’ Practice began in the academic year 2004-05 in the context of a broader effort of internal evaluation at the Department. Its purpose was first to examine to what extent the aim and the particular objectives of the Practice were fulfilled and, second, to investigate various aspects of the programme so that measures for its improvement could be taken. Within this framework of the formative evaluation23, the data arising from the statistical analysis of the questionnaires for each year was processed with a view to improving the Practice for the next years. According to the Department’s Curriculum, students are required to take part in the Practice, which takes place in the fourth year of their studies. Each 23 For further information about the forms and functions of evaluation refer to Papastamatis, 2001: 39-40. 1244 Evaluation of the Supervised Practice of Students Specializing student has to complete at least one hundred hours (100) per semester. The aim of the Practice is to “train students who specialize in Continuing Education so that they acquire the knowledge and experience needed to qualify as executives in the field of Continuing Education” (Information Leaflet ‘Inform yourself of the Practice programme’, 2007). Specifically, the objectives of the course are the following: “a) the students should become familiar with the application of educational and training programmes or adult education programmes conveyed by public of private sectors. These sectors are responsible for the research and promotion of adults’ life-long learning and vocational training …[such as] …OAED-Manpower Employment Organization, CEDEFOP-European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, …EKDD-National Centre for Public Administration, …IEK-Institutes for Vocational Training, KEKVocational Training Centres, big enterprises, banks and organisations …b) The trainers should obtain fundamental skills in reference with the planning, the implementation-application and the evaluation of vocational education and training programmes of adults’ life-long programmes” (Study Guide, 2003-04: 92-93). Methodology of the Research Sixty-three (63) students in total evaluated their Practice during the academic years 2005-06 and 2006-07. Specifically, 28 students of the year 2005-06 (100%) and 35 students of the year 2006-07 (97,22%) participated in the research. As a research tool we used self-report questionnaires, filled in by the students at the end of each semester, after they had completed their Practice. In order to design our questionnaire we used evaluation questionnaires formed to evaluate the Curriculum and In-service training and Specialization programmes of the University of Macedonia. These were adapted to the needs, the content, the aims and objectives of the Practice programme as they were outlined earlier. The questionnaire used consisted of twenty-four (24) questions, twenty (20) of which were closed type questions of an interval Likert-type Scale from 0-6, where 0= not at all, 1=very little, 2=little, 3=enough, 4=a lot and 5=very much. Also were four (4) open-type questions were included. The open-type questions concerned the collection of qualitative data regarding the factors which had caused difficulties to students, as well as the elements that satisfied the students during the Practice. These data illustrated the students’ perceptions about the most appropriate sectors for their Practice and included their suggestions for improving the programme as a whole. The degree of students’ satisfaction with the Practice was functionally approached, based on four areas: 1) the organisational structure of the programme, namely its duration and objectives, the students’ distribution to the 1245 Anastasia A. Pampouri, Evdokia-Theoni Mitropoulou cooperating sectors and the requirement of a written essay after each completion, 2) the sector suitability, namely whether it was appropriate for the needs of the Practice programme based on its function and its activity area, the active participation of the students and their cooperation with the staff, 3) the Department, in terms of the help, guidance and supervision offered by the support group and the responsible professors and 4) the effectiveness of the programme, based on students’ expectations, concerning the attainment of their goals and the acquisition of professional skills and work experience. The questionnaire concerning the degree of satisfaction with the Practice was considered very reliable since its reliability coefficient was: r =0.91 (Cronbach’s a=0.91). Results The presentation, analysis and annotation of the results of this study are conducted in parallel to the two academic years per question and per question area so that the reader can reach a conclusion about the improvements that have been made in several aspects of the Practice through a comparison of the data provided for the two years. Area 1 Table 1: The organizational structure of the Practice Question 1: Was the time allotted for the Practice sufficient? Academic Year Average Score 2005-06 2006-07 Not at all % Very little % Little % Enough % A lot % Very much % 3,78 3,6 7,1 28,6 28,6 32,1 3,49 5,7 8,6 42,9 17,1 A lot % Very much % Question 2: Were the objectives of the Practice clear? Academic Year Average Score 2005-06 3,71 2006-07 4,23 Not at all % Very little % Little % Enough % 3,6 10,7 28,6 25 32,1 20 37,1 42,9 Question 11: Was personal preference taken into consideration when you chose the sector? Academic Year Average Score 2005-06 4,32 2006-07 4,4 Not at all % 2,9 Very little % Little % Enough % A lot % Very much % 3,6 3,6 10,7 21,4 60,7 8,6 17,1 68,6 2,9 1246 Evaluation of the Supervised Practice of Students Specializing In Table 1, question 1, we notice a concentration of the answers in different categories for the two years. The majority of the students (60,7%) participating in the Practice during the academic year 2005-2006 believed that the time allotted was ‘a lot’ and ‘very much’ sufficient, whereas students of the year 2006-2007 were separated into two categories: a) those who thought that time was ‘enough’ (42,9%) which shows that they might wish for more practice time and b) those who thought that the time allotted was ‘a lot’ and ‘very much’ sufficient (42,2%). The next question 2, shows a concentration of answers in the categories ‘a lot’ and ‘very much’ for both years, while there is an increase in numbers in these two categories from 2005-2006 to the year 2006-2007. Specifically, 57,1% of the students who completed their Practice in 2005-2006 believed that the objectives of the Practice were ‘a lot’ and ‘very much’ clear, whereas in the academic year 2006-2007 the number of students who had the same opinion increased dramatically reaching an 80%. As regards question 11, it is noticeable that over 4/5 of the students ranging from 82,1% in the academic year 2005-2006 to 85,7% in the year 2006-2007 mentioned that their preference was taken into consideration ‘a lot’ and ‘very much’, a fact which was greatly appreciated by the students. Area 2 Table 2.1: Appropriateness of the sector Quest. 4: ‘Was the sector where your Practice took place, appropriate for this purpose?’ Academic Year Average Score 2005-06 3,86 2006-07 4,03 Not at all % Very little Little % % 7,1 Enough % 14,3 2,9 31,3 A lot % Very much % 42,8 35,7 25,7 40 Quest. 6: ‘Were the activities you participated in, during your practice useful and in connection with the content of your studies?’ Academic Year Average Score 2005-06 3,61 2006-07 3,91 Not at all % Very little Little % % 7,1 Enough % A lot % Very much % 14,3 21,4 25 32,1 8,6 22,9 37,1 31,4 As we can see in Table 2.1, in question 4, most answers given by students, focus upon ‘a lot’ and ‘very much’ for both years. We, thus, see that in the 1247 Anastasia A. Pampouri, Evdokia-Theoni Mitropoulou academic year 2005-2006 the number of students who gave the above mentioned answers were 78,5%, whereas for the year 2006-2007 the number was 65,7%. For question 6, over ¾ of the graduates of the academic year 2005-06 believed that the activities were ‘enough’ to ‘very much’ useful and in accordance with the content of their Curriculum (78,5%), whereas 91,4% of the students in the year 2006-07 had the same opinion. This fact shows that the content of students’ Practice improved to be closer to the content of their studies. Table 2.2: Students’ active participation degree in a specific programme phase Quest.7: ‘During the course of your Practice, did you participate actively in a specific phase of an educational programme (planning, implementation, evaluation)?’ Not Academic Average Very little Little at all Year Score % % % 2005-06 3,5 10,7 2006-07 2,86 20 3,6 Enough % A lot % Very much % 3,6 25 21,4 35,7 17,1 20 22,9 20 In question 7, we notice a reduction in the number of students reporting to have actively participated ‘enough’ to ‘very much’ actively in the academic year 2006-07, compared to those who participated in the academic year 2005-06. Thus, we see that the percentages, as presented above, for the year 2005-06 were 82,1%, whereas for the academic year 2006-07 dropped to 62,9%. In addition to that, the students who reported ‘a little’ to ‘no participation at all’ increased from 17,9% in 2005-06 to 37,1% in 2006-07. The decrease mentioned above can be correlated to the fact that in Greece, in most sectors involved in continuous education, the planning and implementation phases of vocational education and training programmes do not identify temporally with the three-month period during which students do their practice. As a result, in the planning phase of the Practice as well as when we choose the sectors, we tend to prefer those sectors which run training programmes in that particular period or those sectors in which students are able to study the design or implementation of past programmes through recorded research. Besides what has already been noted, it is necessary to point out that, students’ participation in training programmes is not the only objective of the Practice, but also the familiarization and involvement of students in the consultative and orientation services which specialized sectors offer in Greece. This particular objective is not mentioned in the Study Guide, as it was a result 1248 Evaluation of the Supervised Practice of Students Specializing of an evolution in the field of continuous education, as well as a possibility for career prospects of students. Consequently, students whose sectors were involved in consultative services were not involved in the planning, implementation or evaluation phases of a programme, since these were not part of their Practice objectives. To be able to record cases of students who were involved in consultation and orientation it became necessary to enrich the questionnaire given in 2007-08 with corresponding choices, in order to examine the students’ degree of involvement and familiarization with these services. Trough a comparative analysis of three questions (8a ,8b, 8c), regarding whether the Practice helped the students to acquire new knowledge and skills concerning the planning, implementation and evaluation of a programme, it became clear that students thought that they have acquired the necessary knowledge and skills, at a scale of ‘enough’ and ‘very much’, mainly for the implementation of a programme (67,8% for the year 2005-06 and 71,4% for the year 2006-07), almost the same for the methods and evaluation tools of a programme at a rate of 62,4% for 2005-06 and 71,4% for 2006-07 and less for the planning phase of a programme (53,6% in the year 2005-06, and 62,8% in the year 2006-07). Regarding the degree of satisfaction students had received from their ‘mentor’ -the person responsible for students’ Practice in the sector- (questions 9a and 9b) and the staff (questions 10a and 10b), students seemed to be very satisfied, as more that 90% of them, in both years, believed that the ‘mentor’ was ‘very much’ or ‘a lot’ cooperative (92,8% in 2005-06 and 100% in 200607) and also that they had extensive specialized knowledge (96,4% in 2005-06 and 91,2% in 2006-07). As for the staff of the sector, over 90% of the students believed that the staff was ‘very much’ and ‘a lot’ cooperative (96,4% in 200506 and 91,5% in 2006-07) and over ¾ of the students believed that the staff had specialized knowledge (78,6% of the students in 2005-06 and 88,5% in 200607). 1249 Anastasia A. Pampouri, Evdokia-Theoni Mitropoulou Area 3 Table 3: Students’ satisfaction degree concerning the Department, namely the support group responsible for the Practice and the supervisors Quest. 12: Are you satisfied with the guidance you received from your supervisor? Academic Year Average Score 2005-06 4,28 2006-07 4,54 Not at all % Very little % Little % Enough% A lot % Very much % 3,6 14,3 32,1 42,8 2,9 40 57,1 Quest. 13: Were the guidelines for the Practice given to you by the Department’s support group satisfactory? Academic Year Average Score 2005-06 4,43 2006-07 4,74 Not at all % Very little % Little % Enough% A lot % Very much % 3,6 7,1 32,1 57,1 2,9 20 77,1 Quest.15: Was the aid you received from the Department’s support group effective? Academic Year Average Score 2005-06 2006-07 Not at all % Very little % Little % Enough% A lot % Very much % 4,36 3,6 10,7 32,1 53,6 4,71 2,9 2,9 14,3 80 Table 3 shows that the answers given for question 12 are positive as ¾ of the students for the academic year 2005-06 (74,9%) and almost all of them for the year 2006-07 (97,1%) were ‘a lot’ or ‘very much’ satisfied with the guidance and support they received from their supervisor. Students seemed to be even more satisfied with the cooperation with the Department’s support group, as in all the questions relating to the subject, the majority of them -and with an apparent upward inclination in the year 2006-07, as percentages range between 85,7% in 2005-06 to 97,1% in 2006-07-, stated that aid and guidelines offered to them by the support group were ‘a lot’ and ‘very much’ satisfactory/effective. 1250 Evaluation of the Supervised Practice of Students Specializing Area 4 Table 4.1: The degree to which the Practice contributed to the students’ professional development Quest. 17: Did the Practice contribute to the acquisition of professional experience? Academic Year Average Score 2005-06 2006-07 Not at all % Very little % Little % Enough % A lot % Very much % 3,96 3,6 3,6 21,4 32,1 35,7 4,11 2,9 2,9 17,1 34,3 42,9 Quest. 18: Did the experience you have acquired during your Practice aid you in corresponding to the demands of a particular relevant profession? Academic Year Average Score Not at all % 2005-06 3,39 3,6 2006-07 3,66 Very little % Little % Enough % A lot % Very much % 14,3 35,7 28,6 17,8 8,6 34,3 40 17,1 As we can see in Table 4.1, the contribution of the Practice to work experience and professional skills acquisition for the majority of final year students, as it follows from the answers given to questions 17 and 18, was ‘enough’ to ‘very much’ so that they could prepare themselves effectively for the labour market -the percentages fluctuate between 82,1% in 2005-06 to 94,3% for the year 2006-07-. Table 4.2: The degree to which the objectives of the Practice were attained and they met the students’ expectations Quest. 3: In your opinion, were the Practice objectives attained? Academic Year Average Score Not at all % 2005-06 3,61 3,6 2006-07 3,71 Very little % Enough% A lot % Very much % 14,3 17,8 42,8 21,4 8,6 25,7 51,4 14,3 Enough% A lot % Very much % Little % Quest. 23: Did the Practice correspond to your expectations? Academic Year Average Score Not at all % Very little % Little % 2005-06 3,82 14,3 21,4 32,1 28,6 2006-07 3,94 5,7 17,1 54,3 22,9 In question 3, we see that the majority of the students for both years (63,2% of the students who completed their Practice in the year 2005-06 and the 65,7% Anastasia A. Pampouri, Evdokia-Theoni Mitropoulou 1251 of the students in 2006-07) believed that the objectives were attained ‘a lot’ and ‘very much’. Finally, concerning whether the Practice corresponded to the students’ expectations, we see that 82,1% of them in the year 2005-06 and 84,3% of the graduate students in 2006-07 believed that their Practice met their expectations ‘enough’ to ‘very much’. Overall, the general satisfaction degree with the Practice as a whole was 3.82 for the academic year 2005-2006 and 4.07 for the academic year 2006-2007, a fact showing that Practice is continuously improving to meet the needs of the students and fulfill the aim and objectives of the Practice programme. References Filippou, G. & Kaila, M. (eds) (1999). School Experience: Theory and Practice. Athens: Ellenika Grammata . Information Leaflet “Quality Assurance in Higher Education” (2007). Athens: Hellenic Republic, Hellenic Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education. Information Leaflet “Inform yourself of the Practice programme” (2007). Thessaloniki: University of Macedonia, Department of Educational and Social Policy and the Practice Programme Office (EPEAEK ed.). Koustourakis, G & Panayiotakopoulos, C. (2001). “A comparative approach to evaluation in Tertiary Education: The case of the Greek Open University and the University of Patras”, in G. Bagakes (ed.) Evaluation of educational programmes and school: Educational evaluation? How?, p. 349-357 Athens: Metaehmio. Papastamatis, A. (2001). “Teachers’ appraisal”, in Paedagogiki Epitheorisi Athens: Atrapos, 31, p. 37-63. Sipitanou, A., Samara, E. and Fragkou, H. (2005). “An Attempt of Evaluation of the Studies’ Quality in Higher Education”, in N. P Terzis (ed.) Quality in Education in the Balkans, p. 359-382. Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Brothers. Study Guide (2003-4). Department of Educational and Social Policy. Thessaloniki: University of Macedonia. Vitsilaki, H. (2001). “The necessity for a multi-dimentional methodological approach to the evaluation of training programmes: The case of Allday Schools”, in G. Bagakes (ed.) Evaluation of educational programmes and school: Educational evaluation? How?, p. 301-309. Athens: Metaehmio. 1252 Evaluation of the Supervised Practice of Students Specializing Vergides, D. (2001). “The contribution of evaluation to educational policy”, in G. Bagakes, (ed.) Evaluation of educational programmes and school: Educational evaluation? How?, p. 40-60. Athens: Metaehmio. Examination of Textbooks According to Teachers’ Evaluations Nevin Saylan, Hasan Hüseyin Şahan, Balıkesir University – Turkey Abstract Elementary education curricula have been changing due to advances in science and technology and efforts toward adaptation to the European Union standards. Additional reasons were the changing paradigms in education which also necessitate changes in students’ and teachers’ roles. Furthermore, the curricula were renewed to meet educational needs of contemporary young generations who are expected to have new sets of competencies required of today’s societal and global circumstances. The new curricula were implemented at all elementary schools in Turkey during the academic year of 2005-2006. Along with the renewed curricula, new textbooks were prepared. Standards for the textbooks were set from three stand points: scientific quality of the content, language and expression, and visual quality of the content. Evaluation of the new textbooks needs to be done in the light of these three criteria. The purpose of this study was to examine teachers’ views on textbooks for the renewed curricula. Data collection was done with Textbook Evaluation Survey developed by the researchers specifically for the purpose of this study. The survey is a 5-point Likert-type scale. Data was transformed into percentages and frequencies. One-way analysis of variance was used to test differences between views of teachers depending on the level of their schools, the last school of graduation and seniority. LSD and Schefee test were used to examine further significant differences. Results were discussed in accordance with the specific research questions being addressed. Discussions and implications of the results were articulated. Key words: Textbook, textbook evaluation, textbook evaluation checklist. 1254 Examination of Textbooks According to Teachers’ Evaluations Introduction Instructional curriculum, textbook, learning environment, staff, material, and environment are the major factors affecting the quality of the education. Among those, the mission attributed to the textbook is to inform and guide student in his/her studies. Textbook is the main source written for the teaching of a certain school subject for students at a certain level and the contents of the textbook is evaluated and confirmed depending on the curriculum (Demirel and Kıroğlu, 2004). Textbook having various basic functions such as giving information, organizing the information and self-learning, and coordinating the information is used in the instructional process and by the students as the most basic material and common source. (Keleş, 2001). In a parallel way to the changes in technology, instructional materials and tools also experience positive gains. Moreover, textbooks are considered to be the most commonly used instructional tools in many countries throughout the world. (Fischer, 1997). In a study carried out by Yan and Lianghuo (2002), it was found that textbooks are significant sources for instruction, but they are not the only sources for teaching and learning process. In fact, in today’s’ age when rich sources for the access to information are available, being stick to textbooks does not fit to the contemporary educational principles (Johnson, 1990). Besides, as many studies carried out in the field suggest, the reason for teachers to start their instruction with a chosen textbook and continue the instruction with a textbook also may be because that no other instructional tools are available to the teachers and that they are used to using textbooks. (Kon, 1993). Textbooks are written depending on the standards set by Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu and published through Tebliğler Dergisi in Turkey, and they are also evaluated and confirmed depending on these standards again. (Ceyhan and Yiğit, 2003). In addition to these basic criteria, it is possible to gather the criterion used when it is to be made a choice among more than one textbooks under three headings as visual quality, scientific content, and language and expression. (Demirel, 2004). When textbooks are evaluated, it is possible to evaluate them with regards to visual quality. Including photos with appropriate colors to the target students, presenting necessary explanation related to the pictures, the appropriateness of the size of the textbooks to the students, containing the stories chosen considering the characteristics of the target students, the appropriateness of the fonts of the texts and the spaces between the lines to the students’ age and maturity level, containing the visual aids as much as needed in the textbook, the quality of the papers of the pages, the cover quality of the textbooks, pages’ being in an order to facilitate learning, highlighting the important information are all considered to be among the characteristics which all textbooks should Nevin Saylan, Hasan Hüseyin Şahan 1255 visually have. As textbooks are prepared to help students gain some behavioral objectives in a certain subject matter, it is necessary for the information to have been organized appropriately to the objectives. The information in the content of the textbooks should be up to date and appropriate to the interests and needs of the target students, should be scientifically correct, facilitate learning, practical and useful, consistent with the learning principles and within itself, and also should be ordered from simple to complex, from abstract to concrete, and from easy to difficult. Textbooks should also be faultless with regards to punctuation, should also present some visual aids like pictures, figures, graphs to help the texts to be understood better. The statements, the length and structure of the sentences should be appropriate to the competencies of the students. The language of the textbooks should be clear, comprehensible, and fluent. The language format of the textbook should be consistent throughout the book. The statements should contain some elements to concretize the meaning. Thus the language used in the textbook should be addressed to more than one sense. (MEB, 2004; Demirel, 2004; Kılıç and Seven, Demirel and Kıroğlu, 2005; 2002; Ceyhan and Yiğit, 2003). The studies performed to reveal the quality of the textbooks pointed out that textbooks lacked some significant features. Dayak (1998) determined that teachers and students stated that they had found math textbooks insufficient and that math textbooks contained some mistakes related to language use and given information, that the number and type of the follow up questions were also insufficient, that the topics were not discussed in a concrete way, that the level of the math textbooks mismatched with those of students. In the study carried out by Bulut (1999), it was found that Turkish textbooks were insufficient with regards to “general visual quality” and that it needed to be improved with regards to “visual quality” , that it was acceptable with regards to “word and sentence structure”. The study carried out by Çoban and Mert (2007) found that they had problems with visual design, the appropriateness of the objects in the problems to the instructional principles that the parallelism of the relations of the basic concepts stated in the goals with the content was found to be below the expected level. The quality of the textbooks plays a significant role in the productivity of the teahing and training applications. This is much more important especially at the age of elementary education. That is because that the initial years at elementary education are quite significant in the formation of the attitudes related to the school, learning, teachers and textbooks. The visual quality of the textbooks, their scientific contents, and language and expression of the textbooks which have been prepared depending on the renewed elementary education curriculum as a consequence of the above mentioned reasons are seen as necessities to evaluate the textbooks depending on the teachers’ opinions. When the related 1256 Examination of Textbooks According to Teachers’ Evaluations literature was investigated, the fact that the number of the studies investigating the attempts to evaluate the elementary education textbooks is very few is also a significant part of that requirement The purpose of this study is to determine the opinions of the primary school teachers related to the evaluation of the first year students’ textbooks which have been prepared under the light of the renewed elementary education curricula. For that purpose the following research questions were addressed in this research. 1- What are the views of the teachers related to the first year math, Turkish and Social Sciences textbooks? 2- Is there a significant difference among the views of the teachers related to the first year Turkish, Math and Social Sciences textbooks depending on the level of the school, the school from which they had their latest graduation degree and teaching experience variables Method Descriptive research model was used in this study. The population of this study consists of the teachers in the central counties of the province, Ankara. To determine the high level, low level and middle level school groups in the sampling of the study, the list presenting the OKS scores of the schools in a ranked order were obtained depending on their Turkish-Math achievement averages. To determine groups, the arithmetical means and their standard deviations were used. The data obtained in this study were gathered with the help of “textbook evaluation questionnaire”. The first part of the questionnaire, which consisted of two parts in total, included the following questions, “what does textbook mean to you?” and “what are the most important characteristics of the textbooks out of the one listed below?” The second part was grouped under the following headings, “visual quality”, “scientific content” and “language and expression” and all the participant teachers were demanded to submit their opinions related to the textbooks considering the above mentioned criteria. The criteria used in the evaluation of the textbooks were developed considering the characteristics which textbooks are expected to have after a detailed literature review (Tebliğler Dergisi, 2004; Demirel, 2004; Kılıç and Seven, 2002; Demirel and Kıroğlu, 2005; Ceyhan and Yiğit, 2003; Çepni, Ayvacı and Keleş, 2001). The questionnaire form which was finalized under field experts’ approvals was piloted on 117 teachers working at primary schools to make it a reliable one. The Cronbach alpha consistency of the instrument was found to be 98. The data collection instrument was administered on 183 teachers. The data gathered at the end of the 2006-2007 education year was submitted to SPSS 16.0 package program for analysis. The percentage and 1257 Nevin Saylan, Hasan Hüseyin Şahan frequency values of the data obtained in the first part of the study were then calculated. The general distribution and arithmetical means of the opinions submitted by the teachers were calculated. As the scale used in the collection of the data was three degree (3-1=2/3=0.66), the calculated score intervals (1.001.66 “no”, 1.67-2.33 “partly” and 2.34-3.00 “yes”) were adapted as criteria to comment the calculated average scores. To determine if the opinions of the teachers had any significant difference depending on the variables, “one way variance analysis” was performed and .05 was taken as the significance level in making comments. Findings and Discussion The meaning that participant teachers attributed to the textbook and their opinions related to the most important characteristics that textbooks should meet were presented in Table 1 and 2. Table 1: The meaning that teachers attributed to textbooks What does the textbook mean to you? f % A printed material sent to the schools by the ministry of national education. 57 31.0 An instrument used to reach the pre-determined goals. 119 64.7 The only single source of information used in the teaching –learning process. 4 2.2 The total of the information to be learned. 3 1.6 183 100 Total Table 2: Opinions of the teachers related to the most important characteristics that a textbook should have. Which do you think is the most important characteristics that a good textbook should have? f % To match with the social environment. 23 12.5 To finish it by the deadline set prior to the education year. 4 2.2 To be appropriate to the characteristics of the students. 32 17.4 To be appropriate to the objectives of the course. 124 67.4 Total 183 100 1258 Examination of Textbooks According to Teachers’ Evaluations As can be seen in Table 1, the fact that few of the participants consider textbooks as “the only source for learning in teaching-learning process” or as “the total of the information which should be certainly learned” demonstrates that most teachers have been far away from the traditional understanding. Besides, the findings obtained in this study can be used to make comments that constructivist approach which is the most basic understanding of the renewed instructional curriculum has significantly affected teachers’ perceptions related to the textbooks. When we consider the point that the most basic functions of the textbooks are to help subjects to achieve their objectives, the findings related to the most basic feature of textbook suggest that teachers theoretically had that knowledge. Teacher’s views related to first year Turkish, Math and Life Sciences textbooks are presented in Table 3. 1259 Nevin Saylan, Hasan Hüseyin Şahan Table 3: Teachers’ views related to Turkish, Math and Life Sciences textbooks. COURSES VISUAL QUALITY EVALUATION CRITERIA Turkish Math Lİfe Sciences N S X S X S X Does it contain colors and pictures matching with students’ characteristics? 183 .60 2.48 .70 2.33 .72 2.38 Does it present sufficient explanations related to the pictures? 183 .77 2.24 .81 2.10 .80 2.19 Is the size of the textbook sufficient when students’ characteristics are considered? 183 .76 2.52 .83 2.38 .84 2.34 Does it present stories related to the students’ characteristics? 183 .78 2.09 .77 2.06 .83 2.03 Are the fonts of the letters and letter characteristics appropriate to the class level? 183 .67 2.65 .70 2.61 .81 2.51 Does it contain enough visual images ( graph, tables and shapes)? 183 .71 2.28 .72 2.37 .77 2.21 Is the paper quality first class? 183 .79 2.39 .83 2.28 .82 2.31 Does it have a cover and is it durable? 183 .77 1.65 .77 1.71 .79 1.66 Does the page design facilitate learning for the students? 183 .77 2.12 .77 2.10 .79 2.09 Are the important parts highlighted appropriately and clearly? 183 .80 1.94 .76 2.01 .81 1.92 1260 Examination of Textbooks According to Teachers’ Evaluations COURSES Turkish SCIENTIFIC CONTENT EVALUATION CRITERIA Math Lİfe Sciences N S X S X S X Is the content consistent with the gains suggested in the curriculum? 183 .78 2.27 .79 2.28 .78 2.16 Is the knowledge presented through the content related to the daily life? 183 .70 2.25 .74 2.16 .78 2.15 Does the content prepare students for further learning? 183 .79 2.08 .75 2.09 .74 2.07 Does the content prepare students for the future life? 183 .74 2.10 .70 2.06 .76 2.07 Is the content appropriate for students to construct the information? 183 .77 2.18 .74 2.18 .77 2.07 Is the knowledge presented in the content up to date and scientifically true? 183 .71 2.35 .73 2.34 .77 2.27 Is the information in the content organized sequentially? 183 .78 2.17 .82 2.13 .85 2.07 Is the information presented in the content appropriate to student interests and needs? (is it enough?) 183 .74 2.09 .77 1.98 .82 1.92 Does the content present unnecessary details? 183 .78 2.09 .80 2.10 .79 2.14 Does the content have intra-consistency? 183 .70 2.31 .74 2.30 .77 2.22 1261 Nevin Saylan, Hasan Hüseyin Şahan COURSES LANGUAGE AND EXPRESSION EVALUATION CRITERIA Turkish Math Lİfe Sciences N S X S X S X Is the language acceptable with regards to Turkish grammar? 183 .81 2.32 .80 2.27 .76 2.35 Are the statements clear and concise to students? 183 .75 2.22 .75 2.18 .76 2.24 Are the sentence structure and the length of the sentences appropriate to the student level? 183 .85 2.07 .86 2.19 .87 2.15 Are the statements fluent and does it have consistency with regards to the developed idea? 183 .80 2.10 .80 2.19 .83 2.18 Are the shapes, graphs and pictures comprehensible for students? 183 .72 2.42 .76 2.28 .74 2.37 Are the symbols comprehensible for students? 183 .78 2.31 .76 2.31 .77 2.33 Do the statements encourage students for further learning? 183 .76 2.08 .72 2.17 .81 2.09 Does it have a consistent style throughout the textbook? 183 .73 2.24 .76 2.28 .79 2.22 Does it have elements to make the meaning more concrete? 183 .76 2.10 .77 2.20 .78 2.10 Does expression address more than one sensory organ? 183 .76 2.11 .78 2.16 .79 2.15 When Table 3 is examined, it is seen that teachers’ opinions focus on the “partly” choice, that the lowest and highest values have density on the same items in three of the textbooks. Teachers do not think that the covers of the 1262 Examination of Textbooks According to Teachers’ Evaluations textbooks are of high quality. On the other hand, they consider the fonts and letter characteristics are appropriate to class level. According to the data, it can be said that three of the textbooks are similar to one another with regards to the criteria set prior to this study. The fact that none of the mathematics teachers responded to any of the statements in the questionnaire as “no” suggests that participants consider Math textbook to be of high quality when compared to the other two textbooks investigated in this study. Teachers’ views related to the textbooks depending on school level are presented in Table 4. Table 4: Teachers’ views related to the textbooks depending on school level Course Sub title TURKISH Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression MATH Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression School level N S X Low Middle 44 78 .45 .49 2.09 2.37 High 61 .46 2.17 Total 183 .49 2.23 Low 44 .53 2.00 Middle 78 .54 2.35 High 61 .58 2.05 Total 183 .57 2.17 Low 44 .61 1.95 Middle 78 .50 2.44 High 61 .62 2.06 Total 183 .60 2.20 Low 44 .58 2.07 Middle 78 .47 2.34 High 61 .57 2.10 Total Low 183 44 .54 .59 2.20 1.94 Middle 78 .51 2.34 High 61 .62 2.11 Total 183 .59 2.16 Low 44 .67 2.00 Middle 78 .50 2.47 High 61 .66 2.08 Total 183 .63 2.22 1263 Nevin Saylan, Hasan Hüseyin Şahan Course Sub title LIFE SCIENCES Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression School level N S X Low Middle 44 78 .59 .54 2.17 2.30 High 61 .57 1.99 Total 183 .58 2.16 Low 44 .55 1.96 Middle 78 .58 2.34 High 61 .61 1.94 Total 183 .61 2.11 Low 44 .61 2.02 Middle 78 .60 2.45 High 61 .66 2.07 Total 183 .65 2.22 The data presented in Table 4 show that teachers teaching low and high level schools partly share the opinion that three of the textbooks have the qualities that they are supposed to have. The teachers teaching at middle level schools thinks that life sciences textbook partly have the principles related to visual quality and they also consider that three of the textbooks meet the other characteristics. The textbooks prepared considering the findings obtained in this study can be suggested to be much more appropriate for middle level schools compared to the low and high level schools. The findings related to the comparison of the teachers’ views about the textbooks depending on the school level are presented in Table 5. 1264 Examination of Textbooks According to Teachers’ Evaluations Table 5: Comparison of the teachers’ views related to the textbooks depending on the school level. Course Sub title TURKISH Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression MATH Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression Squre total df Squre averages 2.68 2 1.34 41.09 180 .22 Total 43.77 182 Between groups 4.27 2 2.36 Within groups 55.67 180 .30 Total 60.39 182 Between groups 8.30 2 4.15 Within groups 59.35 180 .33 Total 67.65 182 2.75 2 1.37 51.47 180 .28 Total 54.23 182 Between groups 4.79 2 2.40 Within groups 58.67 180 .32 Source Between groups Within groups Between groups Within groups Total 63.47 182 Between groups 8.16 2 4.08 Within groups 65.15 180 .36 Total 73.32 182 F p 5.87 .00* The Groups Differing from one another Lowmiddle Middlehigh 7.63 .00* Lowmiddle Middlehigh 12.59 .00* Lowmiddle Middlehigh 4.81 .00* Lowmiddle Middlehigh 7.36 .00* 11.28 .00* Lowmiddle Lowmiddle Middlehigh 1265 Nevin Saylan, Hasan Hüseyin Şahan Course Sub title LİFE SCIENCE Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression Squre total Between groups df Squre averages F p 3.33 2 1.66 5.16 .00* Within groups 58.09 180 .32 Source Total 61.42 182 Between groups 7.02 2 3.51 Within groups 62.14 180 .34 Total 69.16 182 Between groups 7.26 2 3.63 Within groups 71.53 180 .39 Total 78.79 182 The Groups Differing from one another Middlehigh 10.16 .00* Lowmiddle Middlehigh 9.13 .00* Lowmiddle Middlehigh *p<.05 When the Table 5 was examined, it was found that there is a statistically significant difference between the views of the teachers teaching at different school levels related to the three of the textbooks with regards to visual quality, scientific content, and language and expression. It was found that the above mentioned differences favor low-middle and middle-high school groups. Depending to the data, it can be said that school level determines teachers’ views about the textbooks evaluation. The teachers’ views related to the textbooks depending on the schools from which they had their latest graduation degree are presented in Table 5. 1266 Examination of Textbooks According to Teachers’ Evaluations Table 6: Teachers’ views related to the textbooks depending on the schools from which they had their latest graduation degree Course Sub title TUKISH Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression MATH Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression Graduated school N S X Education Faculty Institute of education.-teacher training school 50 61 .50 .49 2.14 2.27 Other 72 .46 2.27 Total 183 .49 2.23 Education Faculty Institute of education.-teacher training school 50 61 .52 .59 2.11 2.18 Other 72 .59 2.20 Total 183 .57 2.17 Education Faculty 50 .64 2.14 Institute of education.-teacher training school 61 .62 2.17 Other 72 .56 2.27 Total 183 .60 2.20 Education Faculty Institute of education.-teacher training school. 50 61 .61 .56 2.16 2.23 Other 72 .48 2.19 Total 183 .54 2.20 Education Faculty 50 .62 2.13 Institute of education.-teacher training school 61 .63 2.18 Other 72 .53 2.17 Total 183 .59 2.16 Education Faculty 50 .73 2.23 Institute of education.-teacher training school 61 .64 2.17 Other 72 .55 2.26 Total 183 .63 2.22 1267 Nevin Saylan, Hasan Hüseyin Şahan Course Sub title LIFE SCIENCE Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression Graduated school N S X Education Faculty Institute of education.-teacher training school. 50 61 .63 .58 2.15 2.20 Other 72 .54 2.14 Total 183 .58 2.16 Education Faculty 50 .59 2.11 Institute of education.-teacher training school Other 61 .63 2.12 72 .52 2.11 Total 183 .61 2.11 Education Faculty 50 .64 2.28 Institute of education.-teacher training school 61 .66 2.20 Other 72 .66 2.19 Total 183 .65 2.22 The data presented in Table 6 reveal that teachers with a graduation degree from different schools share the same idea that three of the textbooks “partly” have the qualities that a good textbook is supposed to do. The findings related to the comparison of the teachers’ views about the textbooks depending on the schools from which participants had their graduation degree are presented in Table 7. 1268 Examination of Textbooks According to Teachers’ Evaluations Table 7: The comparison of the teachers’ views related to textbooks depending on the schools from which participants had their graduation degree Course Sub title TURKISH Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression MATH Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression Source Square Total df Square Average F p .66 2 .33 1.37 .25 .24 .38 .68 .78 .46 .23 .78 .10 .89 .32 .72 Between groups Within groups 43.11 180 Total 43.77 182 .25 2 .12 .33 Between groups Within groups 60.14 180 Total 60.39 182 .58 2 .29 .37 Between groups Within groups 67.07 180 Total 67.65 182 .14 2 .07 .30 Between groups Within groups 54.08 180 Total 54.23 182 .07 2 .03 .35 Between groups Within groups 63.40 180 Total 63.47 182 .26 2 .13 73.05 73.32 180 182 .40 Between groups Within groups Total 1269 Nevin Saylan, Hasan Hüseyin Şahan Course Sub title LIFE SCIENCE Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression Source Between groups Square Total df Square Average F p .11 2 .05 .17 .84 .34 .00 .99 .28 .75 Within groups 61.31 180 Total 61.42 182 .00 2 .00 .38 Between groups Within groups 69.15 180 Total 69.16 182 .24 2 .12 .43 Between groups Within groups 78.55 180 Total 78.79 182 *p<.05 When the Table 7 was examined, it was seen that teachers with a graduation degree from different schools had no significant difference in their views related to three of the textbooks, with regards to visual quality, scientific content, and language and expression. According to the data obtained with this study, it can be suggested that the school from which teacher had their degree had no determining role in their views related to the evaluation of the textbooks. Teachers’ views related to the textbooks depending on their teaching experiences are presented in Table 8. 1270 Examination of Textbooks According to Teachers’ Evaluations Table 8: Teachers’ views related to the textbooks depending on their teaching experiences Course Sub title TURKISH Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression MATH Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression Experience 0-10 years 11-20 years N S X 21 63 .52 .50 2.27 2.24 20 and above 99 .47 2.20 Total 183 .49 2.23 0-10 years 21 .61 2.03 11-20 years 63 .62 2.22 20 and above 99 .53 2.16 Total 183 .57 2.17 0-10 years 21 .68 2.15 11-20 years 63 .56 2.24 20 and above 99 .62 2.18 Total 183 .60 2.20 0-10 years 11-20 years 21 63 .55 .55 2.18 2.23 20 and above 99 .54 2.18 Total 183 .54 2.20 0-10 years 21 .58 2.04 11-20 years 63 .56 2.16 20 and above 99 .61 2.19 Total 183 .59 2.16 0-10 years 21 .75 2.04 11-20 years 63 .59 2.25 20 and above 99 .63 2.25 Total 183 .63 2.22 1271 Nevin Saylan, Hasan Hüseyin Şahan Course Sub title LIFE SCIENCE Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression Experience 0-10 years 11-20 years N S X 21 63 .63 .58 2.05 2.23 20 and above 99 .57 2.15 Total 183 .58 2.16 0-10 years 21 .63 1.93 11-20 years 63 .65 2.19 20 and above 99 .58 2.10 Total 183 .61 2.11 0-10 years 21 .74 1.96 11-20 years 63 .63 2.30 20 and above 99 .64 2.22 Total 183 .65 2.22 Table 8 reveals that teachers with different teaching experiences agree that three of the textbooks “partly” own the features that a good textbook is supposed to have. The findings related to the comparison of the teachers’ views about the textbooks depending on their teaching experiences are given in Table 9. 1272 Examination of Textbooks According to Teachers’ Evaluations Table 9: The comparison of the teachers’ views about the textbooks depending on their teaching experiences Course Sub title TURKISH Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression LIFE SCIENCE MATH Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression Visual Quality Scientific Content Language and Expression Source Between groups Square Total df Square Average F p 1.00 .36 .86 .42 .26 .76 .15 .85 .54 .58 1.02 .36 .29 .33 .86 .42 1.49 .22 2.16 .11 .48 2 .24 Within groups 43.29 180 .24 Total 43.77 182 Between groups Within groups Total Between groups .57 2 .28 59.82 60.39 180 182 .33 .19 2 .09 Within groups 67.46 180 .37 Total 67.65 182 Between groups .09 2 .04 Within groups 54.13 180 .30 Total 54.23 182 Between groups .38 2 .19 Within groups 63.09 180 .35 Total 63.47 182 Between groups .82 2 .41 Within groups 72.49 180 .40 Total 73.32 182 Between groups Within groups .58 60.84 2 180 Total 61.42 182 Between groups 1.13 2 .56 Within groups 68.03 180 .37 Total 69.16 182 Between groups 1.85 2 .92 Within groups 76.94 180 .42 Total 78.79 182 *p<.05 Table 9 suggests that the views of the teachers with different teaching experiences are not significantly different from one another with regards to the visual quality, scientific content, and language and expression of the three textbooks. The findings of the study suggest that teachers’ views related to the evaluation of the textbooks are not affected by their teaching experiences. Nevin Saylan, Hasan Hüseyin Şahan 1273 Conclusion and Suggestions With the help of the data obtained in this study, the following conclusions can be drawn. Textbooks are considered to be an instrument to reach the predetermined goals. “The appropriateness of the course to the objectives” is the most basic characteristic that textbooks should have. Whereas first year Turkish, Math and Social Sciences textbooks carry some of the necessary characteristics to some extend, they lack of some essential characteristics that textbooks are supposed to do. The results obtained with the help of this study are consistent to those of Dayak (1998) and Bulut’s (1999) similar study. Whereas textbooks are of high quality with regards to fonts and letter characteristics to some extend, they were found to be of bad quality with regards to the quality of their covers. Whereas teachers’ views related to the quality of the textbooks significantly differ from one another depending on the school level at which they teach, teachers’ view do not differ from one another with regards to the variables of teaching experience and the schools from which participant teachers got their latest degree. This result suggests that the qualities of the textbooks are closely related to the qualities of the teaching environment where they are used as instructional material. The findings of this study suggest that more research should be done to increase the qualities of textbooks as it is a requirement. With this regard, textbooks should be developed with regards to their visual quality, scientific content, and language and expression and also the qualities of the textbook covers should be improved and made more durable. To be able to draw more general conclusions related to textbooks, the textbooks of the classes which were excluded from this study should also be evaluated and this evaluation should also look for answers related to the appropriateness and philosophy of the renewed primary school curriculum. This evaluative study was carried out with teachers, gathering views from students, parents, and inspectors is also considered to be of great importance to able to evaluate textbooks from different angels. Besides, as the revision studies which will be possibly performed on textbooks will not be sufficient; the revision studies should also be reflected on teachers’ books and students’ books because the consistency among textbooks, teachers’ book and students’ book is quite significant as it is required by the renewed curriculum. References Aykaç, N. (2003) Basılı Öğretim Materyallerinde Görsel Tasarım. Çağdaş Eğitim Dergisi. Year: 28, Volume: 297, p: 30-41. 1274 Examination of Textbooks According to Teachers’ Evaluations Bulut, B. (1999) İlköğretim 1. 2. 3. Sınıf Türkçe Ders Kitaplarının Öğretmen Görüşlerine Göre Değerlendirilmesi. Denizli: Pamukkale University, Journal of Education Faculty. Volume: 6. Ceyhan, E. and Yiğit, B. (2003) Konu Alanı Ders Kitabı İncelemesi. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Çepni, S., Bacanak, A., Özsevgeç, T. and Gökdere, M. (2001) LGS Sorularının ve Fen Bilgisi Öğretmenlerinin Sordukları Soruların Formal Operasyon Dönem Özellikleriyle İlişkilendirilmesi. Yeni Bin Yılın Başında Türkiye’de Fen Bilimleri Eğitimi Sempozyumu. İstanbul, 7-8 Sebtember Çepni, S., Ayvacı H. Ş. and Keleş, E. (2001) Fizik Ders Kitaplarını Geliştirmek İçin Örnek Bir Çalışma. Milli Eğitim Dergisi. Milli Eğitim Basımevi. Ankara, November-December. Çoban, A. and Mert, Ş. (2007) İlköğretim Matematik Ders Kitaplarının Değerlendirilmesi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi, 1. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi Bildiri Özetleri. Ankara, 15-16-17 November. Dayak, E. (1998) İlköğretim 5. Sınıf Matematik Ders Kitaplarının EğitimÖğretime Uygunluğunun Değerlendirilmesi. Unpublished MA thesis. Marmara University, Institute of Educatinal Sciences. İstanbul. Demirel, Ö. (2004) Öğretme Sanatı. Ankara, Pegema Yayıncılık. Demirel, Ö. and Kıroğlu, K. (2004) Konu Alanı Ders Kitabı İncelemesi. Ankara, Pegema Yayıncılık. Fischer, T. (1997) A Content Analysis of U.S. Mathematics Textbook 19661996: A Special Education Perpective. Unpublished Dissertation Thesis, University of Winconsion-Madison. Gökdere, M. and Keleş, E. (2004) Öğretmen ve Öğrencilerin Fen Bilgisi Ders Kitaplarını Kullanma Düzeyleri Üzerinde Müfredat Değişikliğinin Etkisi. Milli Eğitim Dergisi. Volume:161. Johnson, G. R. (1990) First Steps to Exellence in College Teaching. Madison, Manga Publish. Keleş, E. (2001) Fizik Ders Kitaplarını Değerlendirme Ölçeği. MA Thesis. Trabzon, KTÜ. Kılıç A. and Seven, S. (2002) Konu Alanı Ders Kitabı İncelemesi. Ankara, Pegema Yayıncılık. Nevin Saylan, Hasan Hüseyin Şahan 1275 Kon, J. H.(1993) The Thud at The Classroom Door: Teachers’ Curriculum Decision Making in Response to a New Textbook. Unpublished Dissertation, Standford University. Tan, Ş. (2005) Öğretimi Planlama ve Değerlendirme. Ankara, Pegema Yayıncılık. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı. (2005). Tebliğler Dergisi. v 68, Sayı 2575. Ünal, S. and Pideci, N. (2000) Lise Kimya Dersleri İçin Materyal Geliştirme Çalışmaları. IV Ulusal Fen Eğitimi Sempozyumu. Ankara, Bildiri ve Poster Özetleri Kitabı, ss. 90. Yan, Z. and Lianghuo F. (2002) Texbook Use By Singaporean Mathematics Teachers at Secondary School Level. Matematics for a Knowledge-Based Era, Vol. 2. Experiences, Practices and Strategies for Comprehensiveness in Pre-School and Elementary Educational System Margarita Hido, “Eqrem Çabej” University – Albania Abstract Human societies have always been dealing with disabled individuals and different attitudes towards them. Nowadays, the policy of abandonment has been replaced by the policy of admittance and comprehensiveness. Comprehensive education involves an educative system, in which pupils of special needs are educated in common schools near their place of living, in the same classes with their friends of the same age, in an education that realizes their possibilities. To reach this the following must be established: Comprehensive culture (acceptance by all that each individual has the right to become successful). Comprehensive policies (state educational policies must support comprehensiveness). Comprehensive practices and strategies (adaptation of the curricula, the use of various forms of the class organization, the creation of stimulating learning environments…) The basis of all these efforts is the thought that pupils are different from one another and they must be evaluated for their diversity. Key words: Comprehensiveness, comprehensive school, comprehensive culture, practice and policies. Introduction Children that for various reasons fail at school, tend to be a reality. The problems are related to them or to the surrounding, may be innate or acquired, difficult or easy to treat and all need to be defined. The most important thing of all is to make them feel evaluated and accept them for what they are. Being 1278 Experiences, Practices and Strategies for Comprehensiveness in Pre-School close to them means doing our best in order to support and help. This requires the will and the way how to deal with that. Through this work, I am trying to give a brief theoretical approach of comprehensiveness and the way of reaching it. I am mostly focused on the actual situation of elementary and pre-elementary education in the schools of Gjirokastra, the way special need children are accepted, supported and how are their problems resolved. In order to be more precise with the conclusions I have reached: − I have been using the method of observation and pedagogical experiment. − I have studied textbooks and school programs, assisted by other teachers, aiming at the positive results and comprehensiveness that these books bring to the students. − I have arranged debates and discussions with colleagues, teachers, school directors and students as the future teachers − I have distributed a questionnaire to elementary schools in Gjirokastra (the results from 80 questionnaires given to teachers and directors have been processed and elaborated). − I have used the contemporary literature concerning the issues of comprehensiveness. Through this paper, I want to emphasize that comprehensiveness is a necessity; efforts are made, but there also is a lot to be done. 1. The Concept of Comprehensiveness in Education Comprehensiveness in education is the proccess which enables full educational participation of children, including also even marginalized groups in order to take part actively in the learning process in public schools. This asks for a school transformation into “school for all”, where: − All children find themselves within the analytic program − The special needs of children are individually treated during the working process − School is responsible for the learners’ progress and the quality of the services produced is concretely evaluated. − Parents are active participants in the decision-making process. (Clark, C., Dyson, A., & Skidmore, D.) (1996) (1) − Children who find difficulties in learning are not only admitted in schools but the programs are compiled and used to fit their needs and capabilities. − The specific approach of the didactic material in the analytic program, class management and teaching methods used etc., define the Margarita Hido − − − 1279 comprehensive practices at school, which requires a change in the teaching staff and the useful means in reaching the desirable results. Concentration is mostly given to their individual abilities and not to their obvious disabilities. The main principle of “school for all” is the principle of human education “every child may have his own school progress”. The teachers understand the value of being different and they try to take such steps of helping everyone to attend school, and meet all their cultural and class needs to convince them to stay at school. (7) In order to be transformed into “schools for all”, common schools should be provided with the proper equipments and conditions to fit the demands of all students. Comprehensive education is the application of everyone’s right to be educated. After the official endorsement of the International Children Rights Convent in February 1992, the Albanian state has reflected children’s rights in the respective legislation. Article 3 in the Albanian Constitution states: “Albanian citizens enjoy equal rights to all levels of education… regardless of their social, health… and financial state.” The normative provision approved in September 2002 guaranties three forms of realization of the education for the special needs children such as common schools, special schools and other institutions where they are provided with possibilities to fully develop their actual potentials. Ratification of this provision gave way to comprehensive education in Albania. Normative provision is regarded as advanced, democratic and comparable to the standards of the developed countries. (Anyway it should be noted that many of its elements have not yet been put to practice in our school). 2. Dimensions of Comprehensiveness Establishing comprehensive cultures To establish a comprehensive culture means: − All those who stay close to children should understand and accept its benefits from comprehensiveness, − The establishment of a stimulating, collaborative, acceptable and reliable community in which all feel evaluated. − Expectations should be high for all children. − Surrounding communities should be involved in the life of the institution. In order to reach comprehensiveness, the main factors, such as teachers and administrative leaders, have the will and know how to do that. After the 1280 Experiences, Practices and Strategies for Comprehensiveness in Pre-School arranged survey concerning the question “Have you got the necessary knowledge at coping with the difficulties in learning, and in general in dealing with individuals of special needs” we got the following results: 69 teachers (=86,2%) replied YES, 11 teachers (=13,2%) replied NO. (It is a result which mostly indicates the desire rather than the reality). The question about “the causes of school children failure” is related to: 1. The child himself, 2.his own family, 3. The way of compiling the school texts and programs 4. Your work as a teacher, 5. Lack of sufficient time, 6. Large number of children in classes, 7.non- recognition of each individual characteristics, 8. The considerable educational load; The results were: 1-85%; 2-87.5%; 3-23.7%; 4-15%; 5-0%; 6-16.2%; 77.5%; 8-8.7% these answers indicate that teachers still hold on to the “ children pathology”, while they should change to the “ teaching pathology”. Generally speaking, teachers accept comprehensiveness along with its benefits, (100% gave a positive answer), but not all the teachers are able to put it into practice. Comprehensive education has enabled universities to provide the future teachers with the useful knowledge in order to be successful in facing this novelty. The curricula of qualifying the teachers of pre-elementary and elementary education in the Gjirokastra University, as in all respective Universities, includes the subject “Special Education”. This subject provides the students with the theoretical and practical information about special education and comprehensiveness as well. There is a separate branch in the university qualifying teachers for the special education but the insufficient number of students enrolled in this branch will not meet the demands. Most of teachers in-service are being helped by qualification and training projects within the framework of Non-Governmental Organizations, which have been adopted by the Ministry of Education. (Due to such a partnership, there have been established 12 comprehensive elementary schools and 12 comprehensive kindergartens all over the country, whose teachers are rewarded an extra salary.) Comprehensive principles and values influence decision-making, concerning comprehensive policies. Making comprehensive policies Policies stimulate the participation of children, teachers and school directors of pre-elementary and elementary educational institutions. The main focus is on the children achievements and minimizing the pressure of exclusion. Policies involve clear strategies, offer supporting activities for the institution as a response to diversity. New policies mean the transition from isolation, to integration, to comprehensiveness: Margarita Hido 1281 Isolation (Points out: -Service for disabled -Categorizing disabled people Special treatment) Æ Integration (Points out: -needs of disabled -their change -equal treatment) Æ Comprehensiveness (Points out: -persons rights institutional change -support to proceed) (6) Comprehensive policies should intend to eliminate the non-genetic factors which become the cause of the school difficulties, such as high educational objectives, lack of continuous motivation, poor physical school surrounding, lack of equipments, curricula burden, etc. Creating comprehensive policies, cultures and values influence the application of comprehensive practices. Application of comprehensive practices Pre-elementary and elementary educational system in Gjirokastra is making efforts to realize the practice of comprehensiveness, although in an unorganized way. The first phase consists in defining the disabilities. According to the final results, not absolutely accurate, in the elementary educational systems in four schools of our town, of 982 students in all, there are 56 disabled children, (5,7%), respectively 12 of physical development problems of, 15 of retarded development, 29 of senses development problems, (if we calculate non biologically caused learning disabilities, children of economical problems, of divorced parents, orphans, etc., it is an evident fact that the need for comprehensiveness is growing.) Statistics of the 4 town kindergartens state: 29 children (or 4.8 %) out of 598 are disabled. As a matter of fact, with regard to the same study the number of disabled children may be even bigger, bearing in mind that not all children attend pre-elementary educational system and most of their problems are recognized when they go to school. Realization of comprehensive practice asks for: − − − − − − − Accurate observation, evaluation of the situation Pedagogical diagnosing (children behavior, inability to do different tasks compared to their peers, school results, outclass activities). special approach to didactic material in the analytic program organizing an appropriate learning environment. application of the efficient teaching methods managing the student’s behavior accepting the diversity (in addition, there are certain activities, which as the main objective have “learners should know and accept the differences that exist between the people”, they use photos of different people to find out the similarities that exist. Also, another objective is 1282 Experiences, Practices and Strategies for Comprehensiveness in Pre-School “disabled people should live and work in the same community as everyone”. They organize activities like meeting a disabled person and have discussions about his life and activities, difficulties and successes.(2) In the course of time, the world literature has made proposals about various models which support and help comprehensive practices such as Human Resources Management (Beer, Spector & Walton, 1984), according to which: It is imperative to improve the actual educational system To create comprehensive strategies To stimulate teachers who work in classes with disabled children Cooperation with special education experts should be attained in order to make teachers and their administrative leaders cope with changes. Other useful methods presented and widely used in our schools are: “Student Teams-Achievement Divisions” (Slavin, 1978), “Team assisted individualization” (Slavin, Leavey and Madden, 1982), and the “Learning together” model (Johnson & Johnson, 1994), which mainly focus on cooperative learning as a very effective practice of comprehensiveness where students depend mainly on themselves and each-other, rather than on the teacher.(4) Minimal objectives based on the principle “everyone to achieve what he can and we do the utmost for every one of them” is another important factor that helps in the participation and success of students in our schools nowadays. Defining the minimal objectives, which is challenging and reachable for everyone, motivates every child to feel successful. All children, particularly disabled ones, need to feel successful. The core of the success is the ability to define and reach all possible realistic objectives. (3) The most effective method of comprehensiveness in pre-educational system is “Learning through roleplaying”. Class activities are concieved to meet children’s interest, which are motivated to communicate and understand the differences among people. Children actively participate in the role and learning as well. The evaluation of the teaching staff is positive, which affects everyone’s achievements for better. The staff urges children to develop selfdiscipline and respectful relationships. “High/ Scope” method is also considered useful because children learn better through active learning experience, which is planned and carried out by them. These, and many other models and methods, help in organizing a learning process, in which every child feels successful. The children with special needs give us the possibility to learn more over the successful teaching for everyone. If disabled people and their right to be Margarita Hido 1283 educated are denied, it is the lack of education and not their learning disabilities that restricts them. 4. Conclusions In the educational system in Albania, during the last few years, there have been a lot of attempts to apply comprehensiveness (i.e including all children in the class in spite of origin, race, disabilities, etc.) For the disabled children to be part of common classes, it is necessary to make use of training strategies for teachers, administrative leaders as well as their parents as useful sources. These training strategies should be prior and during the teaching process. The help and moulding of special education specialist is very necessary. Most of teachers believe in the positive result of comprehensiveness, but are not very optimistic about using this practice widely. (theoretically teachers accept comprehensiveness, but practically they are not ready to change the traditional teaching strategies). There is also a theory that children are better helped if they are put in self-contained classrooms, or in resource rooms. Teachers’ qualification in service could be promoted through their participation in Special Education Qualification. (when asked the question: “ what would be helpful? 1. the necessary literature 2. qualification seminars treating different topics 3.cooperation with other fields 4. university studies, 80% of teachers chose answer 2). In elementary system classes, comprehensiveness could be helped by assistant-teachers, but the realization seems distant. Another possibility would be appointing a teacher as a councellor, responsible for the everyday school policy, students of special needs, advising teachers and seeking their cooperation, making up a school catalogue indicating the learners characteristics, relationship with their parents and other medical, social or voluntary services. (steps are taken in pre-educational system) (5) Treatment of comprehensive problems in mass communication means (not only in the professional press). All those who stay near children (parents, teachers and specialists of other fields......), should be far-sighted and to work on comprehensivess, because comprehensiveness in early childhood is one of the further comprehensive phases in society). 1284 Experiences, Practices and Strategies for Comprehensiveness in Pre-School References Clark, C., Dyson, A., & SkidmoreD. (1996) Innovatory practice in mainstream schools for specia educational needs. London: HMSO ISP (2004) Kurrikula dhe shkolla Nr. 6 . Tiranë : Kristalina Llambiri, S. (2007) Braktisja e fshehtë, Objektivat minimalë, të domosdoshëm për nxënësin. Tiranë: Pegi McNamara, S. & Moreton, B. (2003) Understanding Differentiation. David Fulton Publishers Ltd Nano, V. (2006) Fëmijët me nevoja të veçanta dhe aftësimi i tyre për jetën Revista pedagogjike Nr.3 Tiranë: Erik Save the children (2007) Edhe njëherë për gjithëpërfshirjen. Seminar UNESCO (2004) Të pranojmë diversitetin. - Manual për krijimin e mjediseve gjithëpërfshirëse e mësimdashëse Bangkok. Broshurë Faulty Intonation of Nonnative Language Teachers Requiring Further Education Mehmet Demirezen, Hacettepe University – Turkey Abstract The aim of the further education is to improve the quality of nonnative foreign language teachers’ teaching skills in teacher education. As an issue further education in teacher training, there is a serious handicap in front of the nonnative foreign language teachers: the intonation of the target language, which is very hard to acquire. The three important ingredients of foreign language learning in terms of speech are intelligibility, accuracy, and fluency in intonation. Intonation is a collective term that consists of stress, juncture, and pitch, whose inadequate mastery gives a foreign accent full of to the nonnative teachers. Students hold negative attitudes towards the learning situation if the teacher’ intonation is faulty. In this presentation, the faulty question intonation of 40 Turkish English teachers will be tested through a listening comprehension diagnostic test by using sample question intonation patterns in sentences. It will be claimed that faulty intonation is the weakest side of the nonnative Turkish English teachers who are deadly in need of intonation rehabilitation via further education in intonation. Key words: Intonation, fossilization, intelligibility, accuracy, fluency. Introduction In May, 2008, in the city of Bursa, 40 Turkish English language teachers of the Ministry of National Education were given 20 sentences and they were asked to read these 20 sentences out by paying attention to English intonation. While they read out these sentences, they were taped. After an analysis of intonation patterns that will be handled in this paper, it was discovered that these teachers could not read out a single sentence correctly in terms of acceptable intonation in the English language. Obviously, in Turkey, intonation as a further education issue for Turkish English teachers of the Ministry of National Education is a must. 1286 Faulty Intonation of Nonnative Language Teachers Requiring Further Education Many adult nonnative language learners and language teachers believe that to study intonation, which is in essence a suprasegmental ingredient of language, is more or less a hopeless task to undertake as an issue of further education in foreign language teacher education because it is a very much complicated topic. In relation to further education, learning the intonation of the target language requires a professional outlook in foreign language teacher education. In fact, intonation education is the most difficult skill of the target language; that’s why it is out of favor in many of the foreign language training curricula. “Intonation is acknowledged by linguists to be crucially important in both the construction of speech and determination of meaning. We choose what we mean from a range of possible intonation variants” (Finch, 2005:45). Definition of the Term Intonation The term intonation is a very slippery concept because its definition differs from linguist to linguist and from foreign language educator to applied linguists. “When speaking people generally raise and lower the pitch of their voice, forming pitch patterns. They also give some syllable in their utterances a greater degree of loudness and change their speech rhythm. These phenomena are called intonation” (Richards et al., 1992: 190; Richards and Schmidt, 2002: 272. According to Johnson and Johnson (1999: 176), “intonation refers to the meaningful changes in pitch of voice in speech.” To Crystal (1987: 169), “the most important suprasegmental effects in a language are provided by the linguistic use of pitch or melody-the intonation system.” The definitions given up to now are all defective because intonation is not just a matter of pitch changes in speech. It is, in fact, “the combination of pitch, stress and juncture with which an utterance is spoken (Frost, 1975: 238; Demirezen, 1986: 120). In other words, the togetherness of pitch, stress and juncture is collectively called intonation. As a matter of fact, it is this togetherness of the trio, namely, of pitch, stress and juncture that makes the learning of intonation the most difficult topic in foreign language education. The Nature and Composition of Intonation As noted above, linguistically speaking, intonation points to a collective term that consists of stress, pitch and juncture, all of which are very sensitive to emotional factors, just like pronunciation. Linguists are not in complete agreement on the precise number of stresses, pitches, and junctures used by the native speakers of English. In addition, intonation goes beyond its limits because it embodies grammatical functions, semantic, social, psychological, context, and discourse level (speech theory) information, which are all vital for successful comprehension and communication. Mehmet Demirezen 1287 Intonation and its Overlapping Areas Linguistically and socially speaking, intonation, being the larger stretches of discourse, is the organization of language into units and unit groups in terms of stress, pitch, juncture, and discourse. It overlaps with such concepts like prosody, rhythm, tempo, paralinguistic features, and music of a language, whose differences in every language make no two languages alike, but still there are some universal behaviors of languages among each other. Prosody, rhythm, tempo, and music are different parameters functioning in the nature and composition of intonation. Intonation and Prosody Relations It is a suprasegmental term and “refers to the metrical patterns found in lines of poetry (Crystal, 2007: 74). It is also termed as the study of speech rhythms. Intonation and Rhythm Relations Rhythm “is the regular repetition of stress in time (Seaton, 1982:1559. According to Crystal (2007: 75), pitch, loudness, and tempo combine to make up a language’s expression of rhythm. English uses stressed syllable provided roughly at regular intervals of time in fluent speech and separated by unstressed syllables. Pitch, loudness, and tempo together enter into a language’s expression of rhythm Crystal (1987:161). Intonation and Tempo Relations It is the relative rate of speech habitually used by the native speakers. As it is often realized in the practice of discourse analysis variations in tempo, like speeding up or slowing down in tempo, can create different meanings in the spoken discourse. It is possible to speed up or slow down the rate of the rate at which syllables, words, and sentences are produced, to convey several kinds of meaning (Crystal, 1987: 169). Intonation and Melody Relations Prosody-and intonation in particular-has often been called ‘melody’ ‘or music’ of speech (Crystal, 2007:78). Intonation and Paralinguistic Features Such paralinguistic features, which convey cultural trait, like whispered speech, rounding lips, proxemics, and kinesics are truly universal, but function differently by giving life to many different meanings. Because many of the paralinguistic features are language specific, they are very hard to be learned by the nonnative speaking teachers, who need real further education in them. 1288 Faulty Intonation of Nonnative Language Teachers Requiring Further Education In sum, no matter the languages possess the same language typology or not, prosody, rhythm, tempo, paralinguistic features, and melody (music) of a language are parameters of intonation, making each language different from each other to a greater extent. It is them that make the learning and teaching of a language very difficult job. Some Universal Aspects of Intonation As noted before, no two languages are alike because no two languages have the identical intonation system. But languages as social systems conveying the emotions of human beings may show some approximate universal behaviors in the following aspects: 1. People all over the world express their anger by speaking with increased loudness (stress), raised pitch height, and faster speed (Crystal, 2007:74). 2. All languages seem to make use of the difference between a falling and rising tune, and this is widely interpreted as expressing a contrast between ‘stating’ and ‘questioning.’ 3. A bored tone of voice might be signaled by a monotone like /221/. 4. A surprised tone can be indicated by extra pitch height. 5. Anger can be signaled by the loudness (stress) of a single word. 6. In many languages, a sentence spoken with extra speed conveys urgency, whereas slower speed conveys deliberation or emphasis (Crystal, 2007:75) 7. A rapid clipped single syllable may express irritation (Crystal, 2007:75) People are not robots; they may be made up of similar blood and flesh, yet they possess different personalities and natures, living in different cultures. That’s why they speak and act differently from each other, carrying gross differences living in the same culture. The Elements of Intonation Firstly, stress, “as an articulatory term of description, is also known as accent, is the embodiment of the accumulation of energy imposed upon a sound on a sound group in the process of speech” (Demirezen, 1986: 108). It is the loudest parts of words, phrases, clauses and sentences. Functioning as word stress and sentence stress, there are four stress phonemes in English: 1. /΄/, the Primary Stress It exists on each monosyllabic word: bóok, hóuse, báll, téll, cáll, yéll, dóll, búll, lóve, tásk 2. /ˆ/, the Secondary Stress It generally exists in words, compound words, and verbs; words with more than two syllables and phrases: 1289 Mehmet Demirezen More than two syllables Some Verbs Compound Words Phrases âccídéntăl ôutdáte hótdôg hôt dóg sûppŏsítiŏn rêădjûst rédcôat rêd cóat èlêctrónic rêsŭrréct gréenhôuse grêen hóuse 3. / ̀/, Tertiary Stress It exists in polysyllabic words: ìnâccéssĭble fùndăméntal rèvŏlútiŏn rèsĭgnátiŏn lìngûístĭcs ìntrŏdúctŏry 4. / ˘/, the Weak Stress. Weak stress comes into being in weakly stresses syllables, noun-verb conversions, and in phonemic reduction, due to mobility of stress in English: Weakly stressed syllables sêpărátiŏn scándălŏus ûnătténdĕd Cánădă chârăctĕrístĭc égâlĭtárĭăn Noun X Verb súpport- sŭpport súpply- sŭpply cónvict- cŏnvict Phonemic Decay Cánada / Cănadian mágic/ măgician fínance / fĭnancial With major and minor stress distinctions, the learning process of English gets to be very hard for the learners who have syllable-timed, like Turkish, Hungarian and Japanese, or tone-timed, like Chinese, Vietnamese, and Siamese. Sentence Stress Sentence stress includes the learning of phrases, clauses and sentences, which is an extremely complicated task for many nonnative speaking teachers. The sentence stress variations in noun-adjective-adverbial clauses, and in simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences require special training of longer duration. According to Nunan (2003:53), in the following four utterances, the bold tapeface shows which word is stressed as an analysis of sentence stress: I think I know. (You may not think I know the answer; but I’m pretty sure I do.) I think I know. (I’m not entirely sure, but I think I know the answer? I think I know. (You may not know the answer, but I think I do. I think I know. (I am not unsure I am quite confident that I know the answer.) It is obvious that stress is mobile in English, changing the meanings of sentences beyond recognition. It is this mobility of stress that gives very hard times to nonnative speaking teachers to pick up the real intention of the native interlocuters. 1290 Faulty Intonation of Nonnative Language Teachers Requiring Further Education The Study in Pitches Secondly, the term pitch, also called, tone, “is the frequency of vibrations of human voice heard in highness and lowness of tones during the act of speech” (Demirezen, 1986: 116). Applied and educational linguists are not in complete agreement on the precise number of pitches (tones) used by the native speakers of English. In this study, five types of pitches , which are all separate phonemes of the English language, are considered: The intentions seen in following example sentences may change from person to person: 1. /231/, statement or declarative attitude: a. 2I like 3tea1 b. 21 like 3tea2, 2cof3fee2, 2and 3milk1 c. 2I like 3tea1, 2but my wife 3hates it1 d. 3What you 3say2 2is a 3lie1 2. /233/, question pitch forms (yes-no, interrogative): a. 2Do you speak 3English3 c. 2You are 3guilty3 b. 2Are you 3mad3 d. 2You 3are single2 2aren’t 3you3 3. /232/, incompleteness, doubt, or uncertainty pitch: a. 2In 3sum2….. b. 2If you 3wait2…. d. 2Since 320072… e. 2She is a nice 3girl2… c. 2It is 3doubtful3… f. 2You may 3think so2... 4. /223, or 332/ pitch for calling a. 2ja2son3 (come here) b. 2Geor2ge3 (come here) c. 3Ja2son2 (Giving an admonition) d. 3Geor2ge2 (Giving an admonition) 5. /234/, the shouting pitch a. 2Ste3phen4 c. 2It’s a 3pack of lies4 b. 2I 3hate you4 d. 2Sh3ot up4 6. /221/ the neutral pitch: a. 2That’s 2it1 c. 2That’s 2your problem1 b. 2I 2don’t know1 d. 2That’s 2it1 The study in Junctures As for junctures, they refer to pauses or pausing while speaking. There are five juncture phonemes in English; some other linguists claim that there are more than five junctures in English: 1291 Mehmet Demirezen 1. /↓/, falling juncture: ending the utterance: a. I like tea↓ b. I like tea, coffee, and milk↓ c. I like tea, but my wife hates it↓ d. What you say is a lie↓ 2. /↑/, rising juncture signals enquiring attitude: a. Do you speak English↑ c. You are guilty↑ b. Are you mad↑ c. You are single, aren’t you↑ 3. /√/ falling-rising juncture signals doubt, uncertainty, reservation: a. I’m not SURE \↑ c. She COULD\↑ b. It’s DOUBTFUL\↑ d. It’s UNBELIVABLE\↑ 4. / ⁄↓/, emphatic, important, impatient possibly sarcastic attitudes: a. It DEPENDS ⁄↓ c. Up to YOU ⁄↓ b. REALLY ⁄↓ c. How NICE ⁄↓ 5. /→/, pause juncture indicates incompleteness and expectation; one feels as if the utterance is not finished yet: a. In sum→ b. If you wait→ c. It is doubtful→ d. Since 2007→ e. She is a nice girl→ f. You may think so→ Most of these junctures are agreeable with the punctuation marks, but still they fall short in conveying the features of junctures properly. As it is seen, studies on intonation are extremely complicated, requiring special practices. Adequate drilling and practice develop intonation memory. Learners must be always on the alert because the native tongues of the learners work contrary to the target language acquisition exerting negative pressures and transfers in form of mother tongue interferences. Negative transfers result in a “foreign accent, which typifies adult language learning” (Hudson, 2000: 170). If possible, residence in the target language country will be a good advantage for the nonnative speaking teachers. Difficulties in Intonation During the regular teacher education, if the segmental features like consonants, vowels and semi-vowels are not properly acquired by the nonnative teachers alongside the suprasegmentals, like stress, pitch and juncture, the result will be harmful for both the teachers and the students. The suprasegmentals contribute for more than the segmentals (sounds) to intelligibility for the native speaker (Jenkins, 1998: 121). So the acquisition of the segmentals becomes the predictor of the acquisition of suprasegmentals. 1292 Faulty Intonation of Nonnative Language Teachers Requiring Further Education Thus, “before the primacy of suprasegmentals the problems based on segmentals must be taken care of (Levis, 2005:369). An intelligible intonation, which is composed of good acquisition of the segmental and suprasegmental features, is vital to a nonnative teacher for his communication with the colleagues and fellow teachers. If he is not good at them, “suprasegmentals and segmentals have a cumulative effect on intelligibility (Levis and Linda, 2002: 15). Unsuccessfully acquired segmentals and suprasegmentals will definitely impede the advancement of creative communicative skills in the nonnative teachers and students. The acquisition of a native-like intonation in the target language is idealistic, but it is an impossible skill to gain. The rules of intonation are too many and cannot be determined since there are many Englishes in the world. By nature, intonation is very complicated because “reliable rules therefore cannot be easily formulated, let alone learnt” (Jenkins, 1988: 123) That’s why, “learners are unlikely to attain a native-like accent (Han, 2004; Jenkins, 1988). Faulty intonation builds up a fossilized communicative competence in the skills of nonnative teachers and learners, leading them to the development of a foreign accent. Nonnative teachers with fossilized intonation and accent sound comical to native speakers, become a laughing stock in discourse situations in terms of conversational fluency, just because they fall short of native speech. Nonnative intonation patterns damage the accuracy, intelligibility, and accuracy of the teachers. A mastery of suprasegmentals is likely to make a greater contribution to intelligibility than mastery of segmentals” (Levis and Linda, 2002:14). It must be borne in mind that the cumulative effect of mistaken stress, pitch, and juncture, the trio of which boils down to intonation, leads to the development of a fossilized intonation in the target language. It is impossible to eradicate the errors in intonation because they are much more insistent and persistent than the pronunciation errors. Conclusion It must be remembered that, in terms of further education, intonation education can no longer be ignored. Of course, because intonation arises in an interlingual area of the mother tongue and the target language, it is an inevitable part of foreign language learning. It is not possible to acquire the intonational patterns of a foreign language without residing for some years in the target culture. If not, a mixture of the mother tongue and the target language intonation will give a fossilized intonation skill to the nonnative speaking teacher. But, a fossilized intonation skill is a sign of weak communicative competence; moreover, it is very frustrating to communicate in another language with a bad Mehmet Demirezen 1293 intonation. More importantly, native-like intonation features are fundamental to intelligibility and comprehension at the discourse level. Due to inadequate training in teacher education, failure in making use of appropriate discourse intonation results in very serious communicative breakdowns between the native and nonnative speakers. More importantly, if the segmental features like consonants, vowels and semi-vowels are not treated alongside the suprasegmentals, like stress, pitch and juncture, all of which contextualize in discourse, the result is a fiasco for the nonnative foreign language teacher. Having an intelligible intonation in the target language is a solid proof of possessing an adequate communicative competence and conversational fluency. All teachers, native or nonnative, must be well-educated in intonation. The absence of intonation teaching in the curricula is the greatest gap in foreign language education. In Turkey, in the curricula of foreign language teacher education department there are only two courses, namely Listening and Articulation I and II in the first year. In these courses there is not much time left to handle the fossilized pronunciation errors and intonation analyses in the target language: it is at this junction that we need further education in the teaching of intonation. References Crystal, D. (1987). The Cambridge encyclopedia of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Crystal, D. (2007). How language works. Penguin Books Demirezen, M. (1986). Phonemics and phonology: theory through analysis. Ankara: Bizim Büro Yayınları. Finch, G. (2005). Linguistic terms and concepts. London: Macmillan Pres Ltd. Frost, R. (1975). The way of language: an introduction. New York: Harcourt Brave Jovanovich, Inc. Jenkins, J. (1998). Which pronunciation norms and models for English as an international language. ELT Journal, Vol 52/2, April 1998, Oxford University Press, 119-126. Johnson, K. and Johnson, H. (1999). Encyclopedic dictionary of applied linguistics (eds.) Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Han, Zhaofhong. (2004). Fossilization in adult second language acquisition. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. 1294 Faulty Intonation of Nonnative Language Teachers Requiring Further Education Hudson, G. 2000. Essential Introductory Linguistics. Mass.: Blackwell Publishers. Levis, M. John and Grant, L. (2002). Intgrating pronunciation into ESL/EFL classrooms, TESOL JOURNAL, Vol.12. No. 2, 13-19. Levis, J. M. (2005).Changing contexts and shifting paradigms in pronunciation teaching, TESOL QUARTERLY, Vol. 39, No. 3, September 2005, 369377. Nunan, D. (2003). Practical English language teaching. Boston: McGraw Hill. Richards, J.C., Platt, J., and Platt, H. (1992). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. London: Longman Group UK Limited. Richards, J.C. and Schmidt, R. (2002). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. London: Pearson Education. Seaton, B. (1982). A handbook of English language teaching terms and Practice. London:The Macmillan Press Ltd. Further Education and Emancipative Literacy: Study of an Innovative Example in Greece Vassilios Dagdilelis, University of Macedonia – Greece Maria Bontila, Teacher of Literature, Secondary Education – Greece Achilleas Kapsalis, University of Macedonia – Greece Introduction The term Emancipative Literacy is not as yet widely applied. Even a search on Google gives relatively few results. Nevertheless, this particular term very accurately describes the content of the programme that will be presented in the present paper and for this reason we prefer it to others that are more widespread. The word ‘Literacy’ traditionally describes the ability to read and write or if you like, the ability to use language for reading, writing, listening, and speaking. However, the term ‘language’ needs to be conceived in the wider sense, with its broader significance as a system24. It is a structured sum of symbols (textual, audio, visual etc), which is applied in a suitable manner for the communication within the framework of a particular society (or a particular group in a society), in order to not only achieve but to also advance the exchange of ideas, views, information and last but not least integration into that particular society. UNESCΟ gives a similar definition on literacy: [It] is the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, compute and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning to enable an individual to achieve his or her goals, to develop his or her knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in the wider society. Literacy, therefore, takes into account not only the ‘messages’ but also the historical, political, cultural context of the particular ‘society’ in whose 24 Gunther Kress (2003) Literacy in the New Media Age, Routledge, pp. 1-15. 1296 Further Education and Emancipative Literacy: Study of an Innovative Example in Greece framework communication takes place. The lack of literacy, (or as it is known, illiteracy) is of course a serious social problem that must be solved (for which the proposed solution is education). The related term Critical literacy is an instructional approach that advocates the adoption of critical perspectives towards text. Literacy requires the literate consumers of text to adopt a critical and questioning approach. Critical literacy involves the specific approach, employment, interpretation and management of a text, as well as the reality and identity of that text, which differs from other types in that it approaches these aspects in a more ‘objective’ light, removed from personal beliefs, which may be dogmatic, stereotypical or presented as given truths. Moreover, critical literacy is a form of pedagogical resistance to the structures of oppression such as race, class, and gender. Critical literacy can comprise perhaps the most important objective of schooling nowadays. At the heart of this approach to teaching is the belief that while literacy enables students to make meaning from texts, critical literacy will empower them to understand how texts are trying to influence and change them as members of society. Therefore, student literacy not only at the level of knowledge but also at the level of skills and outlook comprises the teaching objective of a learning process in which the development of a student’s thought takes priority over and above the incorporation of information. Literacy is coupled with the dynamic character of learning. That is, students do not only acquire knowledge but also experience; they learn how to create the conditions of their lives; they experience specific behavioural models and train to not accept any ‘truths’ and stereotypes uncritically, but rather to subject everything to the control of criticism. As Wikipedia notes: With critical literacy we can see a shift in the pedagogical aim. Literacy loses its high-end individualist aspirations and its emphasis on cultural knowledge. It entails attention and submission to the mantras of race, class and gender, and a view of all textual performances as encoded power. This might be a good way to transmit received dogma and to foster right thinking, but it is no way to develop critical intelligence.25 If the word ‘language’ is conceived in the wider sense, then ‘text’ can also be defined within a wider context. According to proponents of critical literacy, it is not simply a means of attaining literacy in the sense of improving the ability to decode words, syntax, etc. In fact, the ability to read words on paper is not necessarily required in order to engage in a critical discussion of "texts" which can include television, movies, web pages, music, art and other means of expression (op. cit.). Thus, literacy no longer suffices as merely printed or spoken form, but it is broadened to encompass all the processes of individual and/or collective expression, as well as include new technologies, foreign 25 http://www.wikipedia.org, Lemma:Critical Literacy Vassilios Dagdilelis, Maria Bontila, Achilleas Kapsalis 1297 languages, Mathematics, art: ultimately, text is everything, either means or relationship, which might be an object of critical analysis, interpretation, and research. In particular, those social structures or relationships, which lead to oppression, exploitation, marginalisation, which function as obstacles to the development and progress of the individual very often comprise the objects of critical analysis. In this case, critical literacy encourages people to actively analyze “texts” (=social structures and practices) and offers strategies for uncovering underlying meanings. It is within this context that Emancipative Literacy is defined: it can be perceived as the sum of critical analyses and proposals whose aim is the emancipation of the individual. Two very important points about Emancipative Literacy are: (a) Emancipative Literacy cannot be conceived merely as a pedagogic approach aimed at individuals who are subjected to discrimination, but rather it must extend to the whole of society. If for example, the objective is to fight racism, then everyone falls under the category of ‘subjects’ of Emancipative Literacy; both the victims of discrimination as well as the ‘perpetrators’. (b) Emancipative Literacy, as a pedagogic approach does not apply teaching methods that impede dialogue (as might, for example, the typical methodology of a ‘teacher’ instructing the class). On the contrary, it supports methods and techniques which are based on discourse, student – teacher interaction and of course, creativity. The Features of the Programme The project “KALLIRROI – promoting gender equality in the transition from education to the labour market: actions for advisory and professional orientation with a gender perspective”, began in 2005 and ended in June, 2008. The project falls within the framework of the educational policy for gender equality of the Ministry of National Education and is co-funded by the European Social Fund (Ε.Κ.Τ) and the Programme of Public Investment (Π.∆.Ε). It was conducted on a national scale by the Department of Psychology, with Dr. Pr. Vasiliki Deligianni-Kouimtzi, Professor of Psychology, as Head of the project, in co-operation with the Department of Philosophy & Pedagogy both of the Aristotle Unversity of Thessaloniki. . The objectives of the project were: • To improve access for girls and young women in the labour market and for them to obtain occupational and professional parity; • To promote the perception that gender equality in the workforce is an issue that does not only concern the female population, but it postulates 1298 Further Education and Emancipative Literacy: Study of an Innovative Example in Greece changes in the attitudes, positions, and values of both women and men. The ultimate intention is not only to extend the professional horizons of girls and young women, but also to incorporate principles associated with family life as well as attention to men’s identity.26 The study was aimed at all Greek public high school students, students of Public Institutes of Professional Training (ΙΕΚ) and other Technical and Professional Institutions. The Features of the Educational Institutes Fifteen Public Institutes of Professional Training (ΙΕΚ) and others (ΟΑΕ∆) participated in the programme in the geographical region of Central and Western Macedonia in 2007-08. Of these five operate in Thessoloniki; two in the center, two in the suburbs and one in a neighbouring municipality. The other ten Institutes are located in provincial towns, both big and small of the above mentioned region. In order to understand the role of the programme and its effect on the student population of the Institutes, we need to keep in mind the profile of these educational institutions. In the region of Central and Western Macedonia forty-three (43) ΙΕΚ are in operation, providing professional training to students of all ages. The ages of the students in each class are mixed. In the same class there can be students who are 18 years old as well as those who are 40 or perhaps even older. In this way, in the same class there could be students who are already working, some who have qualifications from other studies, which in some cases could even be a University degree, as well as young people who have just finished high school. Another characteristic of IEK students is that generally they do not come from the high economic strata and they do not have other educational opportunities. On the whole, ΙΕΚs fill the gap in the area of professional education and training in occupations that have a demand on the labour market. They provide professional direction to their students. Since the main objective is to cover the needs of the local labour market, the specializations offered vary from Prefecture to Prefecture and from city to city. This mixture, which in other circumstances could be negative, has had a positive effect on the implementation of the Kallirroi programme. Implementation of Activities Prior to the implementation of the activities, which aimed at the diffusion and realization of the programme objectives, a series of visits to the IEKs took 26 Application and AdministrationProgramme Guide (ΣΕΠ), Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, School of Philosophy, Department of Psychology, 2005. Vassilios Dagdilelis, Maria Bontila, Achilleas Kapsalis 1299 place and contacts were made to inform the Directors, the secretarial staff, the career advisors and interested teachers. Although the more general objective of the programme is to promote gender equality in the transition from education to the labour market, since the students at ΙΕΚ had already made their career choices we focused on the area of a harmonious partnership between career and family life. Our additional aims were to integrate principles associated with gender equality and for the adoption of conduct which helps to promote it. More specifically our objectives were: 1. The positive reassessment of family life as an activity which involves both sexes. In other words, for students to first understand and then eradicate the ‘reasons’ which emerge and which lead to stereotypical career choices and life plans. 2. To overcome the biased notions about work and gender and for students to adopt choices which lead to alternative means of the organization of adult life. 3. To understand the constructional factors of the social gender and the main structural factors of gender identity. 4. To redefine the concept of citizen and what is meant by socially useful individual. Also to positively evaluate family life and the welfare of its members, the capacity to offer and activation of the private domain. A citizen should not only be regarded as a person who is involved with matters in the public sphere. An active citizen is also one who is involved with private matters. An attempt was made to remove the stigma attached to being involved with housekeeping and to emphasise that men as well as women can and should become actively involved in both public and private domains. One to two activities were implemented in each class. The method employed was having experiential workshops, simulation tasks, role-plays, and awarenessraising activities. A different method was chosen for each class depending on the number of students, their field of specialization, and their age. Subject material included images, short stories, caricatures, questions of an experiential nature, and examination topics. Student Responses Three hundred and fifty (350) students took part in the programme, who besides participating in the activities also responded to a short questionnaire. The aim of the questionnaire was to provide an initial assessment of the programme’s activities and to examine students’ interest in the theme of the project. The fact that all the students actively participated in the activities, discourse, raised arguments and related to the experiential circumstances showed that the 1300 Further Education and Emancipative Literacy: Study of an Innovative Example in Greece theme and subject matter were of interest to all; even those students who from the start appeared to have set views or referred to themselves as conservative. There were also students of other nationalities, whose parents had come to Greece as economic immigrants. The different views of these students provided a good opportunity to develop further the discussion about the construction of the social gender. In fact, in certain ΙΕΚs the students stated that the gender issue concerned them to a large degree because there is high unemployment in their area and it is quite likely that they will have to move in order to find work. For this reason the discussion on the alternative methods for organizing their adult life drew their attention and brought up new issues. Overall, through the experiential type of discussions, the simulation exercises and the role-plays students had the opportunity to imagine and experience themselves as future employees and parents, to manage some of the challenges they will face, and to produce solutions to problems they might come up against. Undeniably, there was also expression of extreme anti-feminist positions, whose origin we tried to explore in a most enlightening private discussion that we had with the teachers. Conclusions We closely observed and coordinated the implementation of the activities in all 43 ΙΕΚs of Central and Western Macedonia. Furthermore, we directly participated in the activities of 15 of the IEKs. We are thus in a position to be able to support that the programme “Kallirroi” brought to the surface data that is indicative of the prevailing attitudes of young people on gender equality. Many of these attitudes were in fact unexpected. The provinces, for example, were more progressive on gender issues than Thessaloniki and the students from families of low economic backgrounds had clearer views as far as the position of the sexes in society is concerned. On numerous occasions, the men had more radical views than the women concerning the social roles of the sexes. We mention indicatively that although the girls formed new identities and resolutely supported their entry into the labour market, simultaneously they also reproduced the conservative stereotypes that want only women to be involved with the household and the children. There were female students who maintained that their future husbands would fall in their eyes if they helped with the household chores. The boys were generally more open-minded on issues concerning their contribution in the upbringing of children and helping around the house. It is interesting to note that the girls were more unwavering and rarely altered their initial viewpoint, whereas, the boys changed their opinions much more easily and readily. In the beginning the male students began with absolute opinions and often identified themselves as having Vassilios Dagdilelis, Maria Bontila, Achilleas Kapsalis 1301 old-fashioned principles, gradually however, they changed their positions. This seemed to happen especially if one of the male students, who was perceived as being a leader and was accepted by all, admitted to doing housework and asserted that it was right to do so. In this way many refutations and shifts in opinions were observed during the discussions. Interestingly, the thing that almost all the boys and very many of the girls did not accept was for the woman to earn more money than the man. The boys considered it would be an insult to their manliness and the girls to the masculinity of their husbands. Another common point of view of both sexes was that “Caesar’s wife must be virtuous and square, but must not be seen”. Men should help around the house but it should not be made known outside the home; they should do so secretly, they should not wear an apron, and they should not be seen in the yard or on the balcony doing some chore. Even though, 350 participants is perhaps a relatively small sample to support an integrated representation of young people’s views regarding gender equality, it is nevertheless, indicative of the attitudes and perceptions that prevail. The general impression gained from the activities that took place at the ΙΕΚs is that the students were left with ‘something’; they raised concerns, both males and females became more aware of the issues and were sensitized to them to a degree, and perhaps some small cracks appeared in the blatant manifestations of gender stereotypes. The programme addressed students 18 years old and over. It helped the participants to raise questions and to make them think about certain circumstances that concern both their family and professional life. In addition, it compelled them to redefine their roles in society and the family based on the new facts. Concluding, the methodology implemented in the programme “Kallirroi” places it within the framework of Emancipative Literacy. The programme aimed/ to strengthen students’ views on certain issues, and to reinforce liberating and emancipative practices within a progressive environment. It also attempted to deconstruct dominant perceptions, to highlight new standards, to deal with potential conflicting circumstances and generally to transform learning into a social action.27 27 Dimitra Kogkidou (1997), Feministiki pedagogiki: ena plesio gia tin ekpedefsi ton ekpedeftikon(Feminist pedagogy:a framework for the education of teacher/teacher education in V. Deligianni and S. Ziogou (Eds), Fylo ke Scholiki Praxi (Gender and School Action, Vanias Publishers, Thessaloniki, pp. 227-257 Further Education as a Frame for Developing Life Skills Tatjana Atanasoska, Faculty of Pedagogy – F.Y.R.O.Macedonia Аbstract Besides other very important challenges which further education activities have, one of the most important is developing life skills through offering various programs for their development. Adult people have the right to work on their life skills, especially in the new context of life and work. They have the right to develop missing one, as well as building new one. This is very serious state worry because if you want to have healthy community, you have to build healthy foundation- adults with healthy lifestyle. Considering this in this paper we have an intention to point out some questions about further education activities as frame for developing life skills. Key words: Further education, non formal education, life skills Introduction The social education is just one of the types of education that are equally offered within the framework of the formal educational system, as well as within the framework of all the types of activities that belong to the informal education. Social education is defined as activity which can be used to cover: all those teaching or informal activities which are planned by curriculum developers, teachers or other professionals to enhance the development of one or more of the following: knowledge, understanding, attitudes, sensitivities, competence, in relation to: [page 93] the self and others, and/or social institutions, structures and organizations and/or social issues. (Lee, 1980: 5) Its history shows that at the beginning of its development its purpose was to focus on specific categories of citizens, mostly those who from different reasons can be called marginalized social groups such as prisoners, mentally handicapped people, and people with problematic behavior. Even though it is followed by characterization of the highly individualistic access orientated toward the client, in its collective action was the save from the social crisis, 1304 Further Education as a Frame for Developing Life Skills especially the economic ones. It has its logic in the first steps this practice was making. Its role in the changed happening of the society drastically has changed making an attempt to adjust to the new demands. The new role is two-sided, on one side compensatory, on the other strengthening. Within the framework of the further education it can and it should be realized the two roles so the possibilities that the formal and informal ways of education offer to be used. The Concept of the Life Skills The concept for developing life skills is an educational task that emanates as social obligation with planetary character, which directly emanates and enforces with the EFA aims. The directions of these aims go in direction of defining a clear framework for implementation of the activities which lead to development of the life skills. The UNESCO recommendations refer to conduction of the activities projected by the action plans in different countries through which will be provided intervention in the development of the life skills within the framework of the further education. All this is about the serious access toward the life skills, probably as a consequence of the noticed flaws in terms of the offer which provides development of the life skills, firstly on behalf of the formal educational program and system. The concept of life skills mostly is identified as a compensatory offer for people who have formed its education trough the formal system, but throughout its durability they weren’t capable to develop their life skills probably because there wasn’t an offer for that. Also, the concept of life skills can be considered as a concept that offers possibility for developing identified flaw of some life skill or for developing a new life skill that asserts with the changes in men’s frame of life and work. The practice of the life skills concept touching whether it has compensatory character, or offers developing new skills depends upon the cultural context where the activities belong, upon the developing level of the society, and upon what is asked from people in that society. This doesn’t surprise at all because the society, all the actions in it, all the processes which go in it are followed by changes, and in that way new demands which refer to the skills that the man owns come to the surface. The Life Skills in New Light Today, the life skills are observed in the light of the support they should give, or even more of the role they should play about the rounding of a successful life by helping the man in the part of successful accomplishment of the professional obligations as well as in the part of the successful life. The success in its private life for the man is very important component which significantly affects the success of the professional sphere. Because the life skills refer to the both spheres of the human life trough the literature it can be Tatjana Atanasoska 1305 found different offers of classifications and divisions of the life skills. Thus, in a good part of the literature as life skills are named the skills of communication, skills of making decisions, skills for reaching relations with other people. But in the literature there divisions such as: skills of thinking and reasoning, activity, systematic thinking, communication, aesthetic, moral, social and civil responsibility. Besides these efforts, on the importance of the life skills suggests the setting of educational outputs which refer to the combination of knowledge, values, attitudes and skills with a special accent on the skills that are connected with the critical thinking, solving the problems, self managing and communication. The process of defining the educational outputs connected with the life skills refers to indicators that serve for measurement of the level of development of these skills. For the big importance the life skills have testify the attempts at international level for dragging out the life skills which on a essential way are connected with conducting some profession. In its center of attention the life skills have shown as a basic precondition for professional success. Actually the life skills in many professions are the base on which the professional or some specific practical skills add. The Life Skills through the Activities of the Further Education If we treat the further education in its widest sense in which belongs the lifetime education too, then further to the life skills there are many things to be said. If we treat the life long education from an aspect of educational initiatives within the informal education, then there are even much more things to be said. The life skills as a rule are something that should be looked after and developed from an early age. According to all the parameters it should be part of the compulsory educational cycle since the first children’s entrance in the educational system. In some countries that’s how it is. But in many other countries they get insufficiently attention, even though that is something that it shouldn’t be allowed. No matter whether we talk about the life skills in the widest sense of theirs classification, or whether we will approach to them in an operational sense, they remain equally important by their meaning. But even though many of the people who create the educational policy are aware of this, in practice as there isn’t enough space and time for building values, knowledge, attitudes in direction of developing skills like these. The formal education as it is designed and as it dominates with the space of the compulsory education doesn’t leave much space in that direction. The educational programs aimed for use of the formal education, especially the one of obligatory character, it is burden with acquiring knowledge, information and attempts for the same to be super structured, extended and deepened. In that context remains very small space for dedicating attention to 1306 Further Education as a Frame for Developing Life Skills the real life skills which later in life can develop as independent or within the professional skills. In one of the divisions that refer to the life skills we can find the skill evaluated as one of the hardest for developing named as negotiation within the framework of the family. Try to remember where and who has helped you to develop it and on which way that has been done through your education. On this condition suggested some researches dedicated to the educational practice, which on self behalf were making an attempt to find out which competitions people who formed some kind and level of education possess. Trying to prepare the man to be as much useful as it can and to give its maximum in the chosen profession, apart remain so much important life skills which often within the strictly professional skills are the successful formula which offers success in working. Very important is their action in the sphere of the private life, because in the contemporary way of living it is necessary to own skillfulness for managing with the numerous challenges on which we come to every day. Тhe further education as a part of the lifelong learning is an excellent opportunity within its framework the life skills can develop, especially if we talk about good given programs in the part of the informal education. The explanation for representing such an access, lays in the fact that this combination offers possibilities for us to refer to the citizens who belong in the adult group, people who want to get an offer of educational packages within the framework of the informal education. On self behalf that is a form of education that suits to the adult’s affinity for avoiding the strict rules that are characteristic of the formal education. This form can successfully offer: compensatory services as well as an educational package that offers possibility for life skills’ perfection and enrichment. Also, this form of educational offer enables the life skills to be used as a change of the previously learned behavior as well as learning of a completely new form of behavior which hasn’t been part of the man’s life, professional and personal. The compensatory services mean an attempt for developing life skills which haven’t been developed through the formal education, not because subjective reasons, but because the way the educational package has been made. To reach that before making the activities program it is necessary to access to identification of those skills that are missing. In this phase we have to be precise because in the following phase it should be included the individualistic access orientated toward the client, which means making a program focused on the skills that are missing at a concrete person. The offer must be made further to an educational package aimed for improving and developing of the already existing ones. In addition we have to have in mind whether the clients are looking for an educational treatment of change of the behavior in a positive way Tatjana Atanasoska 1307 and direction, or they are looking for an educational treatment for conquering a completely new form of behavior. The approach to making a systematic solution which every country plans named as lifelong education slowly becomes a choice of the educational policy of the Republic of Macedonia. Besides the regulating of these problems by a legal framework it remains the impression that not enough attention is paid on the aspect of development of the life skills. The offer from the governmental and non-governmental sector in a form of educational initiatives is full of possibilities for development of the skills which are directly connected with some profession, which means skills which can help the man to work in some sphere. Those programs should include development of the life skills which are connected with the profession such as: managing with emotions, building selfconfidence, skills for making decisions, skills for solving problems. Those are some basic skills on which the new professions insist as well as the changed conditions for work. But very rarely they are developed or they are not present in the educational initiatives at all. Almost it isn’t possible to identify an educational offer within the framework of the further education, in the part of the informal education, that refers to an example of life skills for family life responsible for leading the person toward better family interaction, neither the most elementary ones such as: how to buy a house, dealing with conflict on your job positions or with the colleagues. The choice of the informal form as a possibility for getting and development of the life skills, especially for the adult population gives real guarantees for success. It is a form that steps out the disciplines of the formal education which strictly holds on to the principles of choice of the context, aims, methods, organization of what is called education. On self behalf that doesn’t let flexibility which people want it so much when they want to be included in the process of acquiring knowledge, stands, values and skills. It’s very important that this form offers possibilities for qualitative communication with the one who leads the activities. These immediately form of communication is what the adults prefer. According the former practice of informal education it has shown that it is a very appropriate form of work according to the ways of aims realization, which refer to interactivity: playing roles, group discussions, storm of idea, different games. That is what correlates with the adults’ needs- to be included in the educational process, and in addition to be treated as an equal partner with the one who realizes the program. Also, the formal form of education pays big attention to acquiring science facts, which sometimes makes it loaded with unnecessary information which at the expense of the life skills maybe the man will never use. The informal form really offers possibilities considering the open access toward the client for creating an educational package which will satisfy the client’s needs and which isn’t strictly tied to the 1308 Further Education as a Frame for Developing Life Skills provided of the country. Also here is the possibility which opens because of the optional character of all that the further education offers as a life long initiative. In Republic of Macedonia many things should be made: beginning with giving licenses to people and institutions that will be authorized to create such programs. It shouldn’t be forgotten the incorporation of a system which will regulate the relations between the subjects. Also, it is very important to be made preliminary researches about the condition of the life skills at the population, especially for the age category for getting a compete picture of their needs. That will give the necessary impetus for building civil awareness about the need and the importance of the life skills in general and as skills weaved into the professional ones. The serious access asks for making serious studies which show how the successful countries work on this plan so some of the experiences can be transferred to us. That will help in building the system as well as in the concrete use of some good methods for development of the life skills as the Bridge model offers a possibility for transferring from getting the information to direct change of behavior. References Smith,M.(1988). Beyond Social Education, Developing Youth Work. Informal education, mutual aid and popular practice, Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Retrived 10.04.2008 from http://www.infed.org/archives/developing_youth_work/dyw5.htm Lee, R. (1980). Beyond Coping. London, Further Education Unit. Last updated: December 28,2007, Retrived 10.04.2008 from http://www.infed.org/archives/developing_youth_work/dyw5.htm Definition: Life skills (2008). Wikipedia, The Online Self Improovement Encyclopedia, Last modified on 6 September 2008 Retrived 14.08.2008 from http://www.selfgrowth.com/index.html The partnership for the 21 st Century, Last modified 23.07.2007 Retrived 01.06.2008 from http://www.21stcenturyskills.org/index.php?option= com_content&task=view&id=266&Itemid=120 APPEAL Activities, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO Bangkok, Retrived 25.05 2008 from http://www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=1191 Sharing success programs (2007/2008), http://www.sharingsuccess.org/ Retrived 16.08 2008 from Life skills education (2006) Programmes Retrived 09.04 2008 from http://www.lifeskillseducation.co.uk/overview.htm Tatjana Atanasoska 1309 Brown, Nancy (2007). Teen health 411, PAMF Retrived.01.06 2008 from http://www.pamf.org/teen/sitemap.html Life skills (2001). Life skills Manual, Peace Corps, Retrived 10.04.2008 from www.peacecorps.gov/multimedia/pdf/library/M0063_lifeskillscomplete World class Skills (2006). Retrieved 09.04.2008 from www.dcsf.gov.uk/ skillsstrategy/uploads/documents/World%20Class%20Skills%20FINAL How Does Cooperative Learning Fit in with the Other Elements in an Effective Language Classroom? Ece Sarıgül, Selcuk University – Turkey Abstract This presentation aims to examine the importance and usage of cooperative learning in language teaching. Cooperative learning, also called collaborative learning, occurs whenever students interact in pairs or groups to share knowledge and experiences. It can be defined as concepts and techniques for helping students learn together. Cooperative learning offers many tools for structuring this type of thinking interaction. There are many advantages of using cooperative learning in language classrooms. It fits in with other elements in an effective language classroom.Research has shown that cooperative learning techniques can promote student learning and academic achievement, increase student retention enhance student satisfaction with their learning experience help students develop skills in oral communication ,develop students' social skills , promote student self-esteem help to promote positive race relations . In this presentation, most of the important points about cooperative learning will be examined and examplified in addition to classroom activities. Key words: Cooperative learning-pair work-group work. Introduction Cooperative Learning is a successful learning strategy in which in small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. It is a method where teachers place students in groups with students of different learning levels. The object is for the higher- level students to help lower level students improve their understanding of concepts being taught. In this study, we aim to examine the importance and usage of cooperative learning in the classroom in detail and also examplify the classroom activities. The study presents the “why”,”what”, and “how” of using cooperative learning in education. 1312 How Does Cooperative Learning Fit in with the Other Elements What is Cooperative Learning? There exists no one generally accepted version of CL. Different scholars define it in different ways. It is generally defined as “a relationship in a group of students that requires positive interdependence (a sense of sink or swim together), individual accountability (each of us has to contribute and learn), interpersonal skills (communication, trust, leadership, decision making, and conflict resolution), face-to-face promotive interaction, and processing (reflecting on how well the team is functioning and how to function even better). Olsen and Kagan ( in Kessler 1992 :1 ) explain that “Cooperative Learning is carefully structured- organized so that each learner interacts with others and all learners are motivated to increase each other’s learning.”All activities in which students work together are towards a common goal. If you use cooperative learning in your classroom students can share strengths and develop their weaker skills. It is a methodology that employs a variety of learning activities to improve students' understanding of a subject by using a structured approach which involves a series of steps, requiring students to create, analyze and apply concepts (Kagan, 1990 ). Students working together to "attain group goals that cannot be obtained by working alone or competitively" (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1986). Characteristics of Cooperative Learning Each member of the group is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping group members learn. Learners must work together in order to succeed and personal success springs from the group success. Students work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it. Cooperative Learning Methods share the following characteristics: - Students work together in small groups containing 2 to 5 members. - Students work together in corporation to accomplish their common subjects or learning activities. They recognize that all group members share a common fate. (We all sink or swim together here) - Students work together on common subjects or learning activities. They learn gaining from each other’s efforts. (Your success benefits me and my success benefits you ) - Students know that one’s performance is mutually caused by oneself and one’s group members. (We cannot do it without you) - Students feel proud and jointly celebrate when a group member is recognized for achievement. (We all congratulate you on your accomplishment) Ece Sarıgül 1313 According to Kagan (1994:4:5) there are four basic principles to cooperative learning (PIES): - Positive Interdependence: - Individual Accountability - Equal Participation - Simultaneous Interaction. When any one of the four principles is not implemented, we do not have cooperative learning. The Traditional-Lecture method is currently the most widespread form of classroom instruction in education. In traditional classrooms, teachers are generally active in the classrooms. But, in the cooperative learning classrooms, students in the groups are active and all group members can contribute to the group’s progress .Thus, cooperative learning incorporates both the academic and social interactive dimensions of classroom learning within the same set of procedures. Why Use Cooperative Learning? Language is best acquired when it is used in a way that is meaningful to the student. According to Kagan ( 1995 ) “ language acquisition is fostered by output that is functional and communicative, frequent, redundant, and consistent with the identity of the speaker”. Cooperative learning is the ideal situation for communicative output. It also provides for frequent use of the language. Redundancy is important with regards to output as well as input. Cooperative Learning is not new to education. Although the term may not have been used, cooperative learning in some form has been happening for decades. Many potential benefits arise when it is used in the classroom. Students benefit from sharing ideas rather than working alone.Students help one another so that all can reach some measure of success.The following are some of the benefits of using cooperative learning: (Lie.; 1994:2) - CL helps students enhance their social skills CL provides a shared cognitive set of information between the students to learn the material CL ensures that students construct their own knowledge CL helps students develop skills in oral communication CL provides formative feedback decreases anxiety CL increases student participation CL increases motivation and positive attitude towards class 1314 How Does Cooperative Learning Fit in with the Other Elements A cooperative group is defined as two to five students who are tied together by a common purpose--to complete the task and to include every group member. Cooperative groups differ from typical classroom groups in the following ways: 1. In typical groups, one leader is chosen by the teacher; in a cooperative group, leadership is shared so that all students are responsible for completion of the task and all group members are included. 2. In typical groups, groups are homogeneous in nature; in cooperative groups, members are chosen randomly, or selected by the teacher on the basis of gender, ability, interests, behavior, etc. so that the groups are heterogeneous as possible. 3. In typical groups, members create their own product, have their own materials and have rewards based on individual accomplishment. In a cooperative group, the group creates one product and/or shares materials, and/or has a group reward based on the success as a group. 4. In typical groups, students are told to "cooperate" with no attempt to teach social skills. In a cooperative group, social skills are defined, discussed, observed and processed. 5. In typical groups, the teacher interrupts group work to solve problems, warn students and remind them. In a cooperative group, the teacher encourages group problem-solving. He is an interactor rather than an intervener. 6. In a typical group, the top priority is to accomplish the task -- get the job done. In a cooperative group, the top priority is to accomplish the task and to include every member through each person's use of social skills. (Johnson & Johnson, 1983) As it is realized from the explanations above, it will be a good idea to use cooperative learning strategy in the classroom since it has many advantages when we compare it to the traditional strategies. Building a Climate of Cooperation in the Classroom Classroom atmosphere forms a key ingredient in the success of cooperative learning. For instance, students need; - to feel safe but also challenged - to feel comfortable working with classmates - to be willing to share ideas,ask questions and also take risks. - to know the task clearly which they work together on. It may not be also very easy to persuade students about trying ‘‘Cooperative Learning’’. Many researchers suggest that students working cooperatively learn 1315 Ece Sarıgül more. Thus, It makes them more successful academically.Here are a few talking points for persuading students that CL is worth a go : ( Jacobs and et all 2002:4) Classrooms That Discourage Cooperation – Cooperative Classrooms Eyes on your own paper Look at what peers are doing in order to learn from them, help them and share ideas and materials. No talking to your neighbor Talk to your neighbor in order to exchange ideas, debate, explain, suggest and question. Do your own work and let others do theirs Share your work with others so that the work you do together becomes better than the sum of its parts. If you need help, ask the teacher If you need help ask groupmates or others before asking the teacher. Complete for the teacher’s attention Give each student an opportunity to be spokesperson for the group. Complete for extrinsic rewards Cooperate for both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. Class Activities that use Cooperative Learning Cooperative activities involve the construction of new ideas based on personal and shared foundations of past experiences and understandings. There are a lot of different kinds of cooperative activities that can be used in the classrooms. In this part of the study, we are going to explain only the most common types of activities. Before designing an activity, teachers should be take into account the following issues: 1. What kind of materials can be used for the cooperative activity? 2. What elements of the target language will be needed to complete the activity? 3. How will students be guided towards obtaining these elements? 4. How will the students know how to take turns? 5. How will students self monitor the activity? 6. How will the teacher follow up on the activity in a communicative way? 1316 How Does Cooperative Learning Fit in with the Other Elements Types of Activities There are lots of activities which can be used in cooperative learning classes. In this section, we just examplify some of the common ones. Most of the activities below have been developed by Dr. Spencer Kagan (1994:10:6) and his associates at Kagan Publishing and Professional Development. 1- Jigsaw: Jigsaw is a very well known CL activity. Normally, in Jigsaw, each group member silently reads a different portion of the same text. However, Jigsaw can also be used with listening. Before starting to this activity, groups with five students are set up. Each group member is assigned some unique material to learn and then to teach to his group members. To help in the learning students across the class working on the same sub-section come together to decide what is important and how to teach it. 2-Think-Pair-Share: Involves a three step cooperative structure. During the first step individuals think silently about a question posed by the instructor. Individuals pair up during the second step and exchange thoughts. In the third step, the pairs share their responses with other pairs, other teams, or entire group. During the share time, students are called upon to share the answer with the class as a whole. 3-Pairs Check: Teams break into two sets of pairs. Partners work on a worksheet. One student works on the problem while the other, the coach, watches and helps , if necessary. The coach checks his/her partners work for the agreement. If the partners don’t agree on the answer, they may ask the other pair on the team. If the team as a whole cannot agree on an answer, each teammate raises a hand.f the partners agree on the answer, the coach offers his or her partner a praiser. If the partners switch roles and repeat steps. Pairs compare the answers. If the team agrees on the answer, they do a team handshake. 4- Roundtable: Roundtable is one of the simple cooperative learning structure which can be used with any subject.It is mostly used at the beginning of a lesson to provide content-related team building activity. The teacher asks a question with many possible answers. Students make a list on a piece of paper, each writing one answer and then passing the paper to the person on his or her left. The paper literally goes round the table, thus the name is “Roundtable”. 5-Numbered Heads: A team of four is established. Each member is given numbers of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. The teacher asks a question. Groups work together to answer the question so that all can verbally answer the question. They literally put their heads together and make sure that everyone knows the answer. Then, the teacher calls out a number (for instance - two) and each two is asked to give the answer. Ece Sarıgül 1317 As it can be understood from the examples of cooperative activities above, each member of the group is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping group members learn. Conclusion As teachers, we often focus more on how we teach than on how our students learn. Learning strategies instruction forces us to examine not just what we do to facilitate learning but what our students do to facilitate their own learning. Traditionally, most teachers basically continue to teach the way they had been taught when they were students. Now, teachers are being called upon to learn how to teach in totally new ways. Yet, cooperative learning instructional strategy is found to be one of the most effective ways to promote successful academic achievement, language acquisition, and social development for learners. When classroom activities are meaningful, interesting, and relevant, learning is occurring at every level. In successfully organized groups, students will be more successful. As a teacher you understand the importance of helping your students learn a new thing in the most effective and efficient manner possible. You probably use different techniques to help your students learn to listen, speak, read and write. Cooperative learning situations are not easy to set up. In many situations particularly those in which people must work together on a problem, conflicts may prevent learning. As a result, cooperative learning requires teaching students to work well with others by resolving these inevitable conflicts. We are not saying that all classroom activities should be done in groups. But we suggest that cooperative group activities should be a regular and significant part of instruction. References Jacobs and et al.(2002). The Teacher’s Source Book for Cooperative Learning. Practical Techniques, Basic Principles, Frequently Asked Questions.California:Corwin.Pres.Inc. Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, R. (1983). “The Socialization and Achievement Crisis: Are Cooperative Learning Experiences the Solution” In L. Bickman (Ed.), Applied Social Psychology Annual, 4. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1986). Circles of Learning: Cooperation in the Classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book. 1318 How Does Cooperative Learning Fit in with the Other Elements Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1999). Learning Together and Alone: Cooperative, Competitive and Individualistic Learning (5th ed.). Boston:Allyn&Bacon. Kagan, M,. & Kagan, S. (1992.) Advanced.Cooperative LearningPlaying with Elements.CA:Kagan.Publications Kagan, S. (1994). Cooperative Learning. San Juan Capistrano Resources for Teachers,Inc. Kessler,Carolyn. (1992). (Ed) Cooperative Language Learning : A Teacher’s Resource Book. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents Lie, Anita.(2000). “Cooperative Learning:Changing Paradigms of College Teaching.” Indonesia. Petra.Christian.University Panitz,T.(1996). “A Definition of Collaborative vs Cooperative Learning.” On the…web at http:/www.lgu.ac.uk/deliberations/collab.learning/panitz2./ html Sharan, Shlomo. (1999).Ed. Handbook of Cooperative Learning Methods. USA:Greenwood.Publishing.Group.Inc. Slavin, Robert.E. (1995). Cooperative Learning : Theory,Research and Practice. USA:Simon.and.Schuster.Company. http://edtech.kernesaw.edu/intech/cooperativelearning.html.Cooperative Learning. Initial Teacher Education in Tertiary Education of Greece Michail Georgiadis, Experimental High School of University of Macedonia – Greece Abstract The aim of this paper is to critically analyze the curricula of Tertiary Education Institutions whose graduates are entitled to teach in secondary education. The main question with regard to the relevant programmes of study is whether there has been any change in them since the establishment of a written examination in 1997, the successful participation in which is a prerequisite for the appointment in a teaching post. In addition, a subsequent question refers to the relationship between the theory and the practice element of the programmes. These issues are examined in the context of the continuing professional education and development. The findings of this study suggest that only slight alterations have occurred that do not constitute substantially any change, neither in qualitative nor in quantitative terms: the professional-pedagogical element is still underestimated in the programmes and the structure of them remain as it used to stand. Key words: Initial teacher education, teacher professional development, continuing professional education Introduction The issue addressed in this paper is the initial education of secondary teachers in Greece. Specifically, in this paper, teacher education curricula in the programmes of study of Tertiary Education Institutions (University and non University) are analysed. The purpose of this effort is to bring up to date the relevant data (Angelis 1982, Georgiadis 2004), since teacher education is considered to be of significant importance for the quality improvement of education, in national and international level (Terzis 2006:188-189). Furthermore, since the provision of the 1997 Education Law concerning the pedagogical training of University graduates pursuing a teaching post, a new framework has been introduced for Tertiary teacher education. According to this Law an entrance examination for the teaching profession has been established, 1320 Initial Teacher Education in Tertiary Education of Greece in which graduates participate. Since 1997, only those who succeed in this examination can apply for a teaching post in general and technical secondary education. In the same Law, provision was made for the establishment by University Institutions28 of a six months or one year pedagogical training. In this paper an attempt is made to trace the impact of these developments. Tertiary Education Programmes of study were critically analysed from the professional development point of view and consequently from an adult education point of view (Oja 1994). Initial education is considered to be a fostering process for the professional development of teachers (Cropley & Dave 1978, Todd 1987, Holly & McLoughlin 1989, Naish 1990, Glatthorn 1994). In this context, all teacher education programmes related to secondary education should contain, along with subject knowledge, the following components: a) Pedagogy as an academic theory (academic foundations of education theory, mainly Psychology, Sociology and History of Education) b) Pedagogy as applied theory, namely Didactics of the subjects that teachers are to teach in secondary education and c) Teaching Practice, that takes place in school environments during which candidate teachers take over teaching duties (Ben-Perentz 1994, Gimmestat & Hall 1994). A programme that is considered to be adequate enough from a pedagogical point of view is not merely one that includes the three elements mentioned above in a separate coexistence but one that allows the integration of them (Avgitidou & Georgiadis 2004: 429-432). The most proper program model for this purpose is considered to be the concurrent, according to which the academic knowledge for the teaching subject is provided at the same time as pedagogical theory and practice (Hellawell 1987: 438-459). This scheme of training is more suitable for the development of future teacher attitudes and behaviours based on which teachers should build their strategies for the profit of the pupils. Besides, this scheme allows future teachers to think critically on their professional experience. So, the basic questions that this paper poses concerning programmes of study are as follows: a) to what extent the pedagogical element, i.e. the three components mentioned above, is contained in programmes? b) what is the relationship between the theoretical and practical element of Pedagogy ? c) has any change occurred and in which direction in programmes of teacher education, since 1997? 28 Law 2525/1997, a 6, p 6, & a 6 p 1-5. Michail Georgiadis 1321 University Programmes of Study The Pedagogical Component As mentioned above, in this paper programmes of study analysed are those of University Faculties and Departments whose graduates are entitled to take part in the examination that allows entrance to the teaching profession. Normally, this category of graduates after succeeding in the exams, teach in general secondary education 29. In all, 78 programmes of study have been analyzed. The average percentage of the pedagogical component in its all aspects as mentioned above, in 69 programmes is exactly the same as in 1997, that is 2 %. The 4 Faculties of Schools of Philosophy that have Pedagogical Departments (9 programmes in all) have not been taken into account30. In about 42 programmes of study in the sum of 78, there are no Pedagogical compulsory subjects. This absence characterises mainly the Departments of Schools of Science and the Departments of History and Archaeology, where Pedagogical subjects are offered only as optional. In other programmes, 32 in all, the compulsory pedagogical training is characterised insufficient31. In 12 of them, the presence of Pedagogical subjects is minimal, that is, it is represented by only one subject which gives 3 credits. Usually, the offered subject is a theoretical one. Of course there are optional subjects offered but we do not know the number of students that attend these courses or the combination of subjects they choose. Finally, in the 4 Departments of Pedagogy which belong to the Schools of Philosophy a full range of pedagogical training is provided. Therefore, one could maintain that there has been no change in quantitative terms with respect to the pedagogical component as a whole, in the University programmes of study since 1997. Theory of Pedagogy In the majority of the 32 programmes of study which include compulsory subjects of Pedagogy in an insufficient degree, this component is mainly theoretical. Where theory is offered it usually covers academic aspects of Pedagogy (Sociology of Education, Psychology of Education, History of Education and Philosophy of Education). Usually one or two courses of 29 For the teachers who teach technical subjects in secondary education there is a course of Pedagogical Training lasting one year before they apply for a teaching post. This course has been established in 1959. 30 This percentage reaches 5,3 % if one includes these Faculties. 31 Sufficient could be considered the programs which have one year of Pedagogical Training out of four. 1322 Initial Teacher Education in Tertiary Education of Greece academic pedagogical theory are offered. Only in 5 of these programmes (School of English Language & Literature, School of French Language & Literature School of German Language & Literature of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Department of Home Economics & Ecology in Harokopio University of Athens, and School of Visual and Applied Arts of Faculty of Fine Arts of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki), does the theoretical element concern mainly the applied theory and the Didactics of the scientific subject. In the first case there is a lack of professional orientation in Pedagogy, whereas in the second case there is a lack of theoretical base for teaching (societal or psychological bases). In both cases the theory is deficient. On the contrary, in the Faculties of Philosophy and Pedagogy there is a balance between the academic and the applied element of the pedagogical theory. Whatever the case, it is clear that the main concern of those who are in charge of constructing the programmes is how to provide academic subjectknowledge. Pedagogy seems to be considered as something apart from their main role as University Institutions. Even in cases where Pedagogical theory is offered, it does not provide the base for an integrated professional teacher training. Theory of Pedagogy is usually one of the separate subjects in a programme that is characterised by fragmentation. Furthermore, in those institutions where there is absence of Teaching Practice theory proves to be much more deficient since there is no way to bridge the gap between theory and practice. However, there are some signs that show that University Departments have tried to respond to the developments. Some of them have introduced groups of Pedagogical courses, even if these are offered as optional. A few of them offer a Teacher Certificate in a non compulsory basis, which is however of no importance, since there is no difference between those who choose to follow these courses and those who do not: without exception they all participate in the examination for the entrance in the teaching profession. It is obvious that the way that University Institutions have responded does not disturb the academic balance and the structure in the programmes. Probably they seem to consider professional education a subject of choice for the intended teachers and not on equal terms with the academic subject. Teaching Practice The element with a rudimentary presence in the programmes is Teaching Practice. It may include a) observation of the classroom and of the teaching process carried out by an experienced teacher, which ends up with a report of what has been observed and b) taking the responsibility, by intended teachers, of teaching the classroom. In those Departments where there is such an element (21 in all), it is mainly offered as part of a course of Didactics, therefore it is a Michail Georgiadis 1323 dependent part that is undervalued. This judgment is based on another two facts: a) this element has minimal duration and b) it does not contribute any credits towards the acquisition of the degree. This attitude towards Teaching Practice characterises even the Faculties of Philosophy and Pedagogy. On these terms, theory of Pedagogy as a whole cannot be correlated to Teaching Practice. The only exception is the Faculty of Philosophy and Pedagogy of the Aristotle University. In this Faculty, Teaching Practice takes place in secondary schools in two phases. The first phase is a general one, in which students reflect on what they observe in the school environment within the framework of knowledge acquired from all taught subjects. This phase is held during a period of two weeks. The next phase of Teaching Practice is connected with three subjects that students are going to teach in secondary education as teachers. This part includes observation and familiarization (2 to 5 hours per subject), and taking over the task to teach under supervision in the school classrooms. Students teach each subject once and afterwards they report on their experience as a whole. The position of Teaching Practice is enhanced in this programme, as it is a prerequisite for the student acquiring the degree. Therefore, in this programme there are conditions for the integration between theory and practice to some extent, but the presence of the practice element is undermined, since the performance of the student is not taken into account in the credits that lead to the degree. Besides, the time share allotted to the teaching practice element is very short, something that students complain about. Consequently, even in this programme of study that concerns the education of teachers and the development of the skills tightly connected to the reality of classrooms, Teaching Practice is not treated on equal terms with the theoretical-taught element. Non University Programmes of Study Prospect teachers of technical or professional subjects in secondary technical education, follow a one year course of Pedagogical training, after their graduation from a tertiary institution, University or non University, or a four year programme that includes one year pedagogical training, that leads to a degree. In both cases Pedagogy as theory is offered in all aspects, academic and applied. Teaching Practice is also a component of the program, where enough time is given to candidate teachers first to be prepared in the premises of the Institution through microteaching, then to observe experienced teachers on the job and finally to teach in a real classroom. These programmes remain unchanged since the previous research, and have been judged as the only full range professional courses in Greece for teacher preparation. 1324 Initial Teacher Education in Tertiary Education of Greece Conclusions To summarize, with regard to the attitude of University Institutions towards the professional – pedagogical component in their programmes of study, three categories a) curricula in which there is no Pedagogical element of any kind at all, as compulsory subject. This category is the main bulk of the existing programmes of study b) a small number of curricula in which an insufficient amount of Pedagogical taught element is provided. This is either devoted mainly to the Didactics of the relevant subject matter or to the academic theory. There is also a Teaching Practice element but it does not constitute an independent programme component. Therefore, these programmes could be characterized as deficient and not integrated, so as to support the prospect of a critically thinking teacher c) curricula of the Faculties that include Departments of Pedagogy, in whose pedagogical theory subjects there is a balance between the academic and the applied element. Teaching Practice is an undervalued element compared to Theory of Pedagogy. The main concern in the programmes of all categories seems to be the maintenance of the academic character in Curricula, in terms of both content and structure. Changes that have occurred are not enough to alter this character. Legislative measures for the establishment of pedagogical training remain in paper terms. Teacher education in Greece is still a problematic area of the education system, in quantitative and qualitative terms. The paradox that technical education teachers go through a Pedagogical training course still exists and there is no sign of putting an end to this contradiction. Education policy seems to be reluctant in the realization of the legislative measures that it has taken and the Universities still confront Pedagogical and Professional element as something threatening for their identity. As a result candidate teachers participate in the state examinations for entering the teaching profession having covered their handicap in Pedagogical knowledge in the free market of education services. A new “industry” has been established for adult students that intend to be teachers. Another generation of teachers will enter the profession without having acquired the proper skills for exercising the teaching task. 1325 Michail Georgiadis Table 1:32 Aristotle University Harokopio University Athens University Schools, Faculties & Departments Pedagogical element as optional subject School of Theology 1,9 % 5,2 % School of Philosophy 11,6 % 7,9% School of Sciences 1,9 % 6,9% Faculty of Methodology and History of Science 0% 2,1% Faculty of Physical Education & Sport Science 8,5 % or 8 12.7 % or 13 % Department of Home Economics & Ecology 14 % Department of Geography 0% 5,7% - - Department of Informatics 0% 4% School of Theology 3% 8,9 % 13,7 % 20,3% Faculty of Sciences 0% 6,3% Faculty of Fine Arts 5% 5,6% 8,2 % 16,3% Department of Dietetics & Nutritional Science Faculty of Philosophy Faculty of Physical Education & Sport Science 32 Pedagogical element as compulsory subject In this table, detailed data referring to individual Departments could not be included due to paper size restrictions 1326 Initial Teacher Education in Tertiary Education of Greece 10,9% 0% 4,9% 16,2 % 23,4% 0% 6,9% 2,2 % 6,1 % 0% 6,6 % Department of Physical Education & Sport Science 7,7 % 11,1 Department of History 2,5 % &,5 % Department of Music Studies 5,1 % 8,8 % 0% 4,1 % 8,3 % 41,6 % School of Sciences 0% 2,8% School of Humanities and Social Studies 0% 2,1% Faculty of Humanities & Cultural Studies 2,3 % 12,3 % School of Sciences – Department of Mathematics 0% 13,1 % Ionian Univ Democri-tus Thrace Ioannina Univ Crete Univ 1,27% Peloponnisus School of Philosophy Pedagogical element as optional subject Aegean Univ. Schools, Faculties & Departments Pedagogical ele-ment as compul-sory subject School of Sciences School of Philosophy School of Sciences Department of Greek Literature Department of History & Ethnology Patras Univ Thessa-ly Univ Department of Informatics Department of Physical Education & Sport Science Michail Georgiadis 1327 References Angelis L. (1982) Teacher education in Greece: an analytical study of Institutions for teacher training, their status and role, their curricula and their effect. Thesis submitted to the Department of Education, the University College of Wales - Aberystwyth. Avgitidou S. & Georgiadis M. (2004) Designing Initial Teacher Education Programmes, in: Hadjidimou et al (eds) Proceedings of Panhellenic Cogress, Greek Society of Pedagogy, Thessaloniki: Kyriakides Bros Ben – Peretz, (1994) Teacher Education Programs: Curriculum, σσ. 5991-5995, στο: Husen T. & Postlewaith N. (eds) International Encyclopedia of Education, Pergamon Press. Cropley A. J. & Dave R.H. (1978) Lifelong education and the training of teachers, Advances in Life Long Education, Pergamon Press and the UNESCO Institute of Education. Georgiadis M. (2004) Initial and in service training secondary teachers in Greece and England, Thessaloniki: Kyriakides Bros. Gimmestat M.J. & Hall G.E. (1994) Teacher education programs: structure, σσ. 5995-6000, στο: Husen T. & Postlethwaite N. (eds) International Encyclopedia of Education, Pergamon Press. Glatthorn A. (1994) Teacher development, pp. 5930-5935, in: Husen T. & Postlethwaite N. (eds) The International Encyclopedia of Education, Pergamon Pres. Hellawell D.E. (1987) Τraining for secondary school teaching in the U.K., σσ.438-459, στο: Kazamias A. & Kassotakis M. (eds) Teacher Education in the European Community, University of Crete Press. Holly M.L. & McLoughlin C. (1989) Perspectives on teacher's professional development, London: Falmer Pres. Naish M. (1990) Teacher education today, σσ. 25-44, στο: Graves N. (ed.) Initial teacher education: policies and progress, Kogan Page in association with Institute of Education, University of London. Oja S.N. (1994) Teacher education and adult development, pp. 5935-5939, in: Husen T. & Postlethwaite, N. (eds) International Encyclopedia of Education, Pergamon Pres. 1328 Initial Teacher Education in Tertiary Education of Greece Terzis, N.(2006) The Gymnasium as a grade of compulsory education, Thessaloniki, Greece. Todd F. (1987) Planning continuing professional development, pp.1-19, στο: Todd F. (ed.) Planning continuing professional education, Groom Helm. Law 2525/1997, Comprehensive Lyceum, access of those who hold schoolleaving Certificate to Tertiary Education, Government Bulletin No 188/A/23-9-1997. Programs of study of 78 University Institutions, academic year 2007. In-Service Training for Teachers: Their Needs and Attitudes in the Province of Greece 33 Catherine Dimitriadou, Dora Psoma, University of Western Macedonia – Greece “Improved planning, more involvement of teachers, better evaluation and dissemination will all strengthen the concept of professional development which must be seen to begin with pre-service and continue through a teacher’s career” (OECD 1998: 56) School Teachers as Change Agents in a Rapidly Changing Society Change as “the only constant” in postmodern society has become a contemporary commonplace embracing socio-economic, scientifictechnological, political and cultural data; moreover, it has become as endemic as to create learning needs, extended to a life duration. And although there is no consensus on what school education is really about – on the priorities for curricula, on the skills and qualities required to be a teacher, or the responsibilities to be undertaken (Sayer 2006: 67) –, the needs concerning education around the globe are expected to be satisfied through educational reforms which bring forward a set of central elements: tightening the connection between schooling, employment, productivity and trade, enhancing student outcomes in employment-related skills and competencies, attaining more direct control over curriculum and increasing community input to education (Edwards & Usher 2000: 4). While childhood education occurs in a context of lifelong learning, teachers are the main link between societies’ expectations of their educational systems and concrete student outcomes (Sayer 2006: 69). And even if “investment” in 33 This survey could not have been done without the help of N. Borbotsialos, who established a fruitful cooperation with the schools of the Agrinio area, Greece. 1330 In-ServiceTraining for Teachers: Their Needs and Attitudes in the Province of Greece education means investment in the process of evolution of educators as scientists and professionals (“open professionalism”) (Brinkmann 1996) – since their initial education is totally inadequate for a career having a possible duration of four decades –, impetus towards a European dimension in the training of teachers has diminished in the last decade, due to different historical contexts, situations and understandings (Sayer 2006: 63). On the other hand, teachers encounter many of the pressures and demands existing in a fast changing society and endeavour to cope, but with a sense that governments and communities are not fully appreciative of the new roles they are playing. Their in-service education, therefore, is thought to deliver or compensate for whatever teachers lack in terms of skills, motivation, or knowledge and it has to be seen in a context related not only to the classroom or the curriculum, but also to the identity of learners and the various socioeconomic and cultural contexts (Eraut 1988). This assumption applies especially to the teachers of Balkan Countries, where the pace of change and the intensification of complexity and interdependence make the educational reform imperative for all educational levels. In-Service Teacher Education: Characteristics and Trends Education today is functionally defined not as a process of transmitting what is known, but as a lifelong process of discovering what is not known (Knowles 1983: 54). Then in order for the schools to correspond to their future role, which requires innovation, adaptability and new forms of open professionalism, lifelong learning has been identified as the animating strategy for educational policy for the new era (Hopkins et al. 1994; Day 1999 & 2000; Trotta Tuomi 2004). Towards this orientation, policy makers need information and analysis in order to formulate and implement teacher policies leading to quality teaching and learning at school level (Coolahan 2002). The needs of educators’ actual involvement in forms of in-service education throughout the European states have been investigated for more than fifty years, while the already developed in-service education programs have a character that is constantly redefined according to temporal and territorial constraints of implementation (Brinkmann 1996). What matters in the modulation of these programs are the viewpoints of the educators themselves concerning their educational needs, since they help to focus attention on in-service training issues and give a constructive policy framework for informed supportive action. The degree of the incorporation of educational research into teacher education programs varies a lot between different countries (European Journal of Teacher Education Vol. 15, Issue 1 & 2, 1992 and Vol. 16, Issue 1, 1993). Ιnservice education is supplied through a wide range of types and by various providers (Kennedy 2005). Participation in long or short term, intensive and Catherine Dimitriadou, Dora Psoma 1331 summer courses is usually on a voluntary basis and the thematic areas covered reflect the changing needs of the education system; school management and leadership, curricular up-dating, introduction of new curricular material, promotion of information and communication technologies are mainly emphasized. As to the practices used, collaborative, interactional techniques are much in favour, rather than lectures to groups (OECD 1998: 53-59). Particularly in Greece, the relevant research focuses mainly on the educators’ attitudes and motives as to their correlation to the scientific basis of teaching, their level of participation, their predilections as well as the consequences of their in-service education for the schools (Xochellis 2001, Papanaoum 2003). In this framework, much groundwork on in-service education has been done through programs of the Greek Ministry of Education, teacher education institutions, projects, journals and reports. Many in-service education programs have been developed and a wide range of material has been produced with references in different types of sources, including books, journals, conference reports, publications of national or international organizations, unpublished research and current projects and initiatives. The main scopes of in-service education are the personal and professional evolution of educators, the qualitative improvement of teaching methods, schools and educational systems, the amelioration of interaction between the educational world and the broader society (Pont 1996), while the main instrument for their implementation is the educator’s reflection (Schön 1983), especially within action research (Hatton & Smith 1995). In-school education as a form of in-service education should be mentioned, as it implies a lot of advantages, such as the decentralization of the in-service educational activity and the actual involvement of educators into the organization of the training acts (Eraut 2001; Xochellis & Papanaoum 2000). A Research in the Province Of Greece In the following section of the paper, we will present an inquiry dealing with the educational needs and attitudes of educators working in provincial primary and secondary schools in Greece. The scope of this research lies towards improving the in-service education of teachers that reside in provincial areas. It was realized based on the preamble that opportunities for participation in programs of in-service training are fewer in province than in big urban centres. More precisely, the sample consisted of 101 teachers of primary education and 57 teachers of secondary education, with various areas of expertise. They resided in the city of Agrinio – that is 375 km far from Athens – as well as to villages surrounding Agrinio within a radius of 20 km. This area is characterized as an agricultural one that is geographically rather isolated due to both its geomorphology and its scarce road and train network. 1332 In-ServiceTraining for Teachers: Their Needs and Attitudes in the Province of Greece The research was realized using questionnaires which were answered by all the primary teachers that were addressed. Contrastingly, in order to come to the sample of 57 teachers of secondary education, 350 questionnaires had to be distributed in repetitive phases, as most of the teachers neglected to fill the questionnaire’s sheets. The teachers of the sample as adult learners were involved in the process of self-diagnosis (Knowles 1983: 58), as they answered in nine closed questions (giving the possibility for more than one answers) and an open one, all concerning their needs and attitudes about their past and future in-service training. Except their personal information of the participants, the research questions posed referred to the following: • What was the subject, the institution and the duration of possible former in-service training experience of the educators? • Would the educators like to participate in in-service training programs in the future? • In which subject would they like to be trained? • Which scientific profile should their educators have? • Which methods of in-service education would they prefer? • Where did they think that these training courses would be helpful? The research data were codified, recorded and analyzed with the aid of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software (Pallant 2002). The sample consisted of 158 participants. 37% of them were men and the remaining 63% women. 64% of the participants was in primary education while 36% in secondary education. 70 teachers of the sample were either in the primary or the secondary education and had the following specialty: Greek language (16), Physics (11), Music (10), Informatics (6), English language (6), Physical education (6), Mathematics (4), Special education (2), Theology (2), Arts (1), Sociology (1), Law (1), German language (1) and Technology (1). Referring to their years in service, the distribution of the sample is shown in Table 1: 1-10 years 23% 11-20 years 31% More than 20 years 46% Table 1: Distribution of participants according to their years in service Only a few of the participants (5%) had acquired a postgraduate degree, while 7% had a second degree. 86% of the participants said that they had taken part in in-service training courses before. From this percentage, 43% said that their in-service training programs had a pedagogical character, while 63% had 1333 Catherine Dimitriadou, Dora Psoma been trained further to their area of expertise. A 6% had taken part to both forms of in-service training. Some of the subjects that were taught in the in-service training courses were: new technologies, job orientation, arts, theatre, educational law, educational management, health education, prevention matters. 64% of the participants said that they were trained by educational advisors, 39% by Regional Training Centres (in Greek: PEK), 37% by University professors and 4% by Training Schools (in Greek: SELME and SELDE). Referring to the duration of the training programs, educators replied that they had participated to seminars of 25 to 160 hours, ordered in days or months. It is worth mentioning though that only a few of the participants declared the exact duration of their programs. 92% of the participants said that they would like to participate in in-service training programs in the future. Their wishes are presented in Table 2, according to their preferences. EducaTeaching Area of Problem New Special Educational Educational tional methodexpertise Management Technologies needs research Law psychology ology 56% 53% 49% 46% 44% 23% 12% 9% Table 2: Topics of in-service education needed Concerning the institutions that they preferred to be trained by, the participants selected as shown in Table 3: University Ministry of Education Educational Advisors Coworkers Educators 68% 48% 28% 20% Table 3: Preferences according to institution of training Referring to their in-service education practices which the participants would choose, their preferences are escalated as shown in Table 4: Workshops Lectures Cooperative groups 67% 42% 34% Table 4: Preferences as to in-service education practices 1334 In-ServiceTraining for Teachers: Their Needs and Attitudes in the Province of Greece Referring to the participants’ viewpoints as to the usefulness of the inservice training programs they would participate in, their choices are shown in Table 5: Better Teaching Help to weak students Scientific/ professional development Discipline problems Audiovisual training PC training 63% 53% 42% 40% 35% 34% Table 5: Viewpoints on the usefulness of in-service training There were no statistical important differences in the participants’ answers in accordance to their gender, school position, specialty, years in service or other education. Only five of the participants answered to the open question that referred to comments on the research. They declared that they preferred a pedagogicallyoriented in-service training for teachers of secondary education and they presented the idea that seminars are probably more intensively oriented to money absorption by institutions rather than on meaningful training. At last, they wished that younger educators should be trained on a permanent basis. Conclusions – Discussion Having in mind that as an adult, a teacher is deeply motivated to learn those things he sees the need to learn (Knowles 1983: 53), and relying on the results of the research presented here, we can conclude that educators in the province of Greece do realise their need to have more in-service education, aiming mainly on their professional competence and development. This opinion is stated clearly, even if the majority of them – being on service in a relatively isolated area of the province – already have an in-service training experience, as almost half of them have more than 20 years of service in education. Educators prefer training on the subject they teach and on subjects of educational psychology, then on new technologies and teaching methodology and less on special educational needs and educational law. Their preferences as to the available institutions practicing the training courses indicate their considerations on the quality of trainers supporting in-service education. That’s why they prefer mainly the University and in second consideration the Ministry of Education, while they present some reservations on the training that can be done by educational advisors and fellow educators. This conclusion seems to contradict the international trend that encourages the schools to be engaged in collaborative development planning, especially where the occupational hazard of geographic or professional isolationism is in evidence (Coolahan 2002). Catherine Dimitriadou, Dora Psoma 1335 Nevertheless, their previous participation in in-service training programs does not avert them from wanting more. Referring to the methods of in-service training, most of the educators present their preference to in-service education that has a laboratory form, contrasting to the form of lecture-conversation, something that exists also in a European level, as it is shown by a relevant research (Coolahan 2002: 26). Most of them would not want to be trained in cooperative groups, something that suggests the loss of confidence in the possibility of in-training service through decentralized collaborative procedures with colleagues. The participants have a very positive posture toward their training. They consider that whatever they acquire through these training acts can be transformed to successful teaching that can refer to both the teaching and the pedagogical aspects of their service, as well as to their professional evolution. Instead, they don’t seem to present the same interest for their familiarization with new technologies. It is worth mentioning that primary schools’ teachers were more eager to complete the questionnaires, showing thus a positive position towards the research topic and the research procedure itself. Nevertheless, it is widely known in Greece that primary schools’ teachers have a more systematic pedagogical training through their studies than those of the secondary schools (Papanaoum 2003). So, it can be supported that the educators in the provincial greek areas have a positive position toward in-service training acts, that would empower their scientific and professional profile (Harris 1989; Trotta Tuomi 2004; Korthagen & Vasalos 2005). These aspirations could be implemented through providing training courses that would be offered either by government institutions or by the organization of for-life opportunities inside the school, in a context of inside-the-school-training. Furthermore, in order to face successfully the challenges occurred in professional contexts of complexity and change, teachers should be reflective practitioners (Schön 1983), being able to develop their own knowledge, as autonomous learners and problem solvers, and as researchers into their own practices (Dimitriadou & Efstathiou 2007). Such an option takes them one step forward in the pursuit of authentic modes of teacher in-service education (Lieberman 1996; Chitpin & Evers 2005). Even if the results of this research refer to a limited sample, they could be expanded to include educators from other areas of the greek province. We hope that such a report of opinions, attitudes and needs of teachers is a useful feedback for the structure and the function of the already existing in-service training programs in Greece, especially in the province. And although it is not easy to secure a sound basis for future disciplined in-service education approaches, these results would be helpful in designing future in-service education programs and facilitate the dialogue between Greek government, 1336 In-ServiceTraining for Teachers: Their Needs and Attitudes in the Province of Greece regional institutions and international organizations on key issues to be addressed when planning investments in teacher in-service training. Teacher training policy, moreover, requires an integrated approach that goes far beyond the particular content of the training to be carried out to incorporate financial, managerial, cultural and economic perspectives and contributors (Navarro & Verdisco 2000). In that sense, the rhetoric on education for capability and competency-based education reflects a range of perspectives including the viewpoints not only of teachers and researchers, but also of providers of educational training, as well as of policy makers at both individual country and international level. References Brinkmann, G. (1996). Η εκπαίδευση των εκπαιδευτικών: τάσεις στην Ευρώπη [Teacher education: trends in Europe]. Pedagogical Review 24, 27-37. Chitpin, S. & Evers, C. W. (2005). Teacher professional development as knowledge building: a Popperian analysis. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice 11(4), 419-433. Coolahan, J. (2002). OECD Education Working Paper No 2. Teacher Education and the Teaching Career in an Era of Lifelong Learning. Paris: OECD Education Working Papers. In: < www.oecd.org/edu/workingpapers> (available at 2.9.2008). Day, C. (1999). Developing Teachers: The Challenges to Lifelong Learning. London: Falmer Press. Day, C. (2000). Teachers in the twenty-first century: time to renew the vision. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice 6(1), 101-115. Dimitriadou, C. & Efstathiou, M. (2007). Ο αναστοχασµός ως εργαλείο επαγγελµατικής ανάπτυξης των εκπαιδευτικών σε πλαίσια επιµορφωτικών δράσεων: ένα παράδειγµα εφαρµογής [Reflection as a tool for the professional development of educators in educational contexts: an example of application]. In: Proceedings of International Conference for Open and Distance Learning (ICODL) 2007, pp. 335342. Athens, November 23-25. Edwards, R. & Usher, R. (2000). Globalization and Pedagogy. Space, place and identity. London: Routledge. Eraut, M. (1988). Inservice Teacher Education. In M. J. Dunkin (Ed.), The International Encyclopedia of Teaching and Teacher Education, pp. 730743. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Catherine Dimitriadou, Dora Psoma 1337 Eraut, M. (2001). Teachers Learning in the Workplace. In: Πρακτικά ∆ιεθνούς Συµποσίου Συνεχιζόµενη Εκπαίδευση Εκπαιδευτικών και Ανάπτυξη του Σχολείου [Proceedings of International Conference for Continuing Teacher Education and School Development, pp. 54-68 . Thessaloniki 2001. European Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 15, Nos. 1, 2, 1992 and Vol. 16, No. 1, 1993. Special Editions on “Educational Research and Teacher Education in Europe”. Harris, B. (1989). In-Service Education for Staff Development. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Hatton, N. & Smith, D. (1995). Reflection in Teacher Education: Towards Definition and Implementation. In: <http://alex.edfac.usyd.edu.au/ LocalResource/Study1/hattonart. html> (available at 2.9.2008). Hopkins, D., Ainscow, M. & West, M. (1994). School Improvement in an era of change. New York: Teachers College Press. Kennedy, A. (2005). Models of Continuing professional Development: a framework for analysis. Journal of In-service Education 31 (2), 235-250. Knowles, M. (1983). Andragogy: An Emerging Technology for Adult Learning. In: M. Tight (Ed.), Education for Adults: Adult Learning and Education. London: Groom Helm. Korthagen, F. and Vasalos, A. (2005). Levels in reflection: core reflection as a means to enhance professional growth. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice 11(1), 47-71. Lieberman, A. (1996). Practices that support teacher development: transforming conceptions of professional learning. In M. W. McLaughlin & I. Oberman (Eds.), Teacher learning: new policies, new practices, pp. 185201. London: Teachers College Press. Navarro, J.C. & Verdisco, A. (2000). Teacher Training: What Works and What Doesn't, Technologia 2,6. In: <www.techknowlogia.org/ tkl_active_pages2/TableOfContents/t-right.asp?IssueNumber=8> (available at 2.9.2008). Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (1998). Staying Ahead: Inservice Training and Teacher Professional Development. Paris. In: <www.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/display.asp?lang =en&sf1=DI&st1=5LMQCR2K8T5C> (available at 2.9.2008). 1338 In-ServiceTraining for Teachers: Their Needs and Attitudes in the Province of Greece Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2004). Co-financing Lifelong Learning: Towards a Systemic Approach. Education & Skills, 2004, (16), pp. 1 – 146. In: <http://new.sourceoecd. org/rpsv/book/b3_about. Htm> (available at 2.9.2008). Pallant, J. (2002). SPSS Survival Manual, A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS (2nd ed.). Buckingham: Open University Press. Papanaoum, Z. (2003). Το επάγγελµα του εκπαιδευτικού [The teacher profession]. Athens: Gutenberg. Pont, T. (1996). Developing Effective Training Skills. A practical guide to designing and delivering group training. London: McGraw-Hill. Sayer, J. (2006). European perspectives of teacher education and training, Comparative Education 42 (1), 63-75. Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner: how professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Base 8.0 (1998). User’ s Guide. U.S.A.: SPSS. Trotta Tuomi, M. (2004). Planning teachers’ professional development for global education. Intercultural Education 15 (3), 295-306. Xochellis, P. & Papanaoum, Z. (2000). Η ενδοσχολική επιµόρφωση των εκπαιδευτικών: Ελληνικές εµπειρίες 1997-2000 [In-school teacher education: Greek experience 1997-2000]. Thessaloniki: AUTH. Xochellis, P. (2001). The Education and In-Service Training of Teachers in Greece. In: N. Terzis(Ed.), Teacher Education in the Balkan Countries, pp. 19-31. Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis. Intercultural Education - A Challenge of Contemporary World Adina Pescaru, University of Petroleum and Gas – Romania Abstract States, communities, institutions and individuals must choose. Should the states try to impose a homogenous national identity or should they celebrate the diversity, helping to the societies evolution? Should the communities keep the tradition, even they limit the right to choose and the different kind of liberties or should they use their common knowledge and resources in the benefit of the exchange? Should the international institutions insist on the laws which take into account the legal and specific cultural traditions or should they recognize, respect, promote the products and the resources of other cultures, strengthening the legitimacy of institutions? Should the individuals limit to singular identities or should they admit that they are part of an interdependent humanity? The democracy and the equitable development are essential in the cultural inclusion. But they are not sufficient. Some multicultural politics of inclusion are needed: admitting the differences, supporting the diversity and surpassing the power asymmetries. The individuals must renounce to the rigid identities, if they want to be part of a diverse society. The international institutions must respect the other cultural traditions and create conditions for the development of local cultural resources. Just in such circumstances the multiple identities will evolve beyond the national borders. In this way the identity and the freedom will flourish in a cultural diverse world. Key words: Intercultural education, majority needs, minority needs 1340 Intercultural Education - A Challenge of Contemporary World Introduction Discovering the others means the discovering of a connection and not of a barrier. Claude Levi Strauss As you could notice the rythm of changes from our societies dramatically have risen in the last decades. The confrontations between different cultures continue to be a major factor of these changes. In the same time we started to realise that even inside the dominant cultures there are people, who don’t conform to regular norms and who are identified as belonging to subcultures. Once we found that, we - step by step- came up recognizing the fact that these individuals have rights and ask for respect and confirmation. The governmental responses to all these changes were often mixed inside the same country. Some countries started special educational programmes for the children who represent minorities existing for a long time on their teritory and for the children of newly come immigrants. Depending on political and cultural context, the educational systems were asked to achieve a variety of aims, as such: • to assure a potential easy integration of immigrants’ children, in the case in which they would have returned in their origin countries and they would have to reintegrate in the educational and social systems • to include the children of minority cultural groups and in this way to totally deprive them by their cultural identity; this fact is oftenly known as an assimilation politics. It could be summarized in this way, extended the old saying: „When you are in Rome, behave as Romans!” to „When you are in Rome think, feel, believe and behave like Romans!” • to support children of minority cultural groups in order to integrate in the main tide of society, but keeping parts of their cultural identity; this means sometimes integration politics, like: „When you are in the Roman society, behave like them; but you can cook whatever you want in your house, if you shut the windows.” Sometimes various educational forms and aprroaches result. But there were serious problems associated to such aims and practices. These are based on an implicit superiority of main culture, which is supposed to be unmarked by the contact with the other cultures. The change was expected to come only from the minorities. It is added to this also the fact that most of the immigrants don’t come back in their countries of origin and in this way these aims don’t correspond to the reality. And they have little in common with intercultural education objectives. Adina Pescaru 1341 Gradually, the perceptions on multicultural societies evolved. There isn’t a mosaic in which cultures are placed one next to each other, not having an effect one over the other, but there isn’t either a mixture in which everything is reduced to the least common denominator. Intercultural education proposes processes which allow the discovery of the mutual relationships and the suppressing of the barriers. There are strong links with other educational philosophies, as the education for human rights, antirasial education and the education for development. We chose the „intercultural” term, because as Micheline Rey says, the „inter” prefix is full of meanings, assuming: interaction, exchange, suppressing the barriers, reciprocity, objective solidarity. Intercultural Education as a Process of Social Education For a society to be a really intercultural one every social group must be able to live in conditions of equality, no matter what his culture, life style or origins are. This means we have to reconsider not only the way we interact with the cultures which seem strange comparing with ours, but also with minorities as gays or people with disabilities, who confront themselves with a lot of intolerance and discrimination forms. It is needed for numerous forces – social, economical, political ones- to combine in order to build such a society. Intercultural education is one of the main tools which we actually possess, which help us to benefit of the opportunities offered by the multicultural societies. The general target of intercultural education is to favour and to reintroduce the bases of some mutual relationships among different societies and diverse minority cultural groups or majority ones. This goal assumes: • to notice that diversity has its roots in the equality and it doesn’t become just a reason for marginalisation • to make efforts to recognize the different cultural identities and to promote the respect for the minorities • to solve the conflictual interests in a calm manner It is assumed that intercultural education must have its own place inside the society as a whole. It is impossible for ourselves to imagine an intercultural education which functions with just one of the parts involved, represented only by the minority group or by the majority ones. 1342 Intercultural Education - A Challenge of Contemporary World The majority needs and the minorities ones are different, but they are interdependent. In the case of most of the minority groups, especially those resulted as a consequence of the imigration processes, the most important need is that of developing a lot of abilities and to aquire knowledge. For instance, without the ability to communicate in a common understandable language, it is difficult – if not impossible- to survive in a society. In the majority groups’ situation it is essential to start to look beyond the accepted norms, to doubt on the ordinary ways of thinking – especially the negative stereotypes and prejudices – in their relation toward the minority groups. It is necessary for all of us to understand the role played by the power relations from the society and their effect on intercultural relations. These different needs have different objectives. In the case of the majority social groups the aims of intercultural education are: • to understand the reality of an interdependent world and to encourage the actions proper to this reality • to surpass the negative prejudices and the ethnical stereotypes • to favour a positive evaluation of diversity • to look for and to stress on the similarities • to generate positive behaviour attitudes and habits towards the people belonging to other societies and cultures • to put into practice the principles of solidarity and civil courage In the case of minority groups, the intercultural education aims include all the above ones and more than this the one of living inside the society without losing the own cultural identity. Young people represent an essential resource for intercultural education. Even the intercultural education must take place in the society as a whole, it is almost sure that it is focused on the system of relations among children and youth. We can justify our statement by that they will be – to a great extent- the future citizens of the intercultural societies. They are also an important channel of communication with the adults and they can help these to see the neccesity of changing in the relations they are developing. There are here also essential messages for adult education. Intercultural education works with children and youth on two main principles: • in order to help them to gain the ability of recognizing the inequality, the injustice, the rasism, the prejudices, the stereotypes • in order to offer them knowledge and abilities which they can use in their attempt to change these mechanisms, anytime they will confront them in the society Adina Pescaru 1343 The educational approaches are extremely important both inside and outside school. The way we report to these aproaches depends a lot of the context. It is true that someone can find more formal methods in the education ouside school ( reading, written exercise), but can also find informal methods in schools (activities of achieving group projects, local environment use). There are also principles that we must take into account when we talk about intercultural education. PRINCIPLE NO.1 : Intercultural education respects the cultural identity of that who learns, by providing a quality education fit to everyone – from the cultural point of view. PRINCIPLE NO.2: Intercultural education offers- everyone of those who are learning- knowledge, attitudes and cultural abilities, needed for active, total participation in the society PRINCIPLE NO.3: Intercultural education offers- everyone of those who are learning- knowledge, attitudes and cultural abilities, which allow them to contribute to the respect, understanding and solidarity among individuals, ethnical, social, cultural and religious groups and the nations Intercultural education can’t be a simple „supplement” to the ordinary syllabus. It has to take into account the learning environment as a whole and also other dimensions of educational processes, such as: school life and taking the decisions, professional education, training courses, curriculum, teaching languages, teaching methods, pupils interactions and learning materials. This can be done from multiple perspectives. The inclusive curriculum development – which assumes learning about languages, history and cultures of nondominant groups from the society – constitutes an important example. The issue of teaching language/languages is another crucial element of the efficient intercultural education and it was analysed by UNESCO in its paper called „Education in a multilingual world”. The distinctive aims of intercultural education can be summarised under the name of „the four pillars of education”, as they are identified by „International Commision for The 20-th Century Education” According to the Commision conclusions, education should be based on the followings: 1. To learn to know, by combining generally knowledge with the opportunity of working actively to a small number of projects; The commision says that: „a general education puts the person in contact with other languages and areas of knowledge and....makes possible the communication”; these results of general education represent one of the 1344 Intercultural Education - A Challenge of Contemporary World fundamental abilities, which must be transmitted by the intercultural education 2. To learn to do in order to „accumulate not only some occupational abilities , but – more than this – the competency of solving many situations and of working in a team.” In the national and international context to learn to do includes the aquiring of necessary competencies, which allow the individual to find a place in the society. 3. To learn to live together by „ developing the ability to understand the others and by taking into account the interdependency – the participation to the common projects and the aquiring of the ability to solve conflicts – in the spirit of respect for pluralism values, of the mutual understanding and peace and of the cultural diversity.” The one who learns must get knowledge, abilities and values, which contribute to the spirit of solidarity and cooperation among the individuals and the different groups from the society. 4. To learn to be in order „to develop more the own personality and to be able to act with a bigger authonomy, judgement and personal responsability.” In this way the education doesn’t have to disregard nothing of a person’s potential, not his cultural one and it must count on the right to diversity. These values strenghten the identity meaning of the one who learns and also his cognitive ability. Conclusions States, communities, institutions and individuals must choose. Should the states try to impose a homogenous national identity or should they celebrate the diversity, helping the societies evolution? Should the communities keep the tradition, even they limit the right to choose and the different kind of liberties or should they use their common knowledge and resources in the benefit of the exchange? Should the international institutions insist on the laws which take into account the legal and specific cultural traditions or should they recognize, respect, promote the products and the resources of other cultures, strengthening the legitimacy of institutions? Should the individuals limit to singular identities or should they admit that they are part of an interdependent humanity? The democracy and the equitable development are essential in the cultural inclusion. But they are not sufficient. Some multicultural politics of inclusion are needed: admitting the differences, supporting the diversity and surpassing the power asymmetries. The individuals must renounce to the rigid identities, if they want to be part of a diverse society. The international institutions must respect the other cultural traditions and create conditions for the development of local cultural resources. Just in such circumstances the multiple identities will Adina Pescaru 1345 evolve beyond the national borders. In this way the identity and the freedom will flourish in a cultural diverse world. References Banks, J.A.(1995). Multicultural Education: Historical Development, Dimensions and Practice. In: Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education. Macmillan Publishing USA, New York, p.3-24. Chavkin, N.F.(1989). Debunking The Myth about Minority Parents. In: Educational Horizons, p.119-123 Freedman, S.W. et al.(1999) Inside City Schools: Investigating Literacy in Multicultural Classrooms. New York: Teachers College Press Garcia, S.B. (coord.). (2000) Through Their Eyes: Educators’ Reflections About Staff Development on Intercultural Communication in The Classroom. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of The American Educational Research Association, New Orleans Greenfield, P.M., Cocking, R.R.(1994). Cross-cultural Roots of Minority Child Development. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Greenfield, P.M., Raeff, C., Quiroz, B.(1996). Cultural Values in Learning and Education. In: Williams, B. Closing The Achievement Gap: A Vision for Changing Beliefs and Practices. Alexandria, p.37-55 Harkness, S., Super, C.M.(1992). Parents’ Cultural Belief Systems: Their Origins, Expressions and Consequences. New York:Guilford Press Lustig, M., Koester, J.(1999) Intercultural Competence: Interpersonal Communication Across Cultures. New York: Longman Press Nieto, S.(1996). Affirming Diversity: The Sociopolitical Context of Multicultural Education. New York: Longman Tator, C., Henry, F.(1991). Multicultural Education. Translating Policy in Practice. Ottawa: Ministry of Multiculturalism Kindergarten Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and Attributions for Positive and Negative Classroom Situations Georgia Stephanou, Eirini Sivropoulou, University of Western Macedonia – Greece Abstract This study investigated (a) kindergarten teachers’ attributions for the perceived negative and positive classroom situations, and (b) the impact of teachers’ self-efficacy on the generation of the same attributions. Kindergarten teachers (n= 200), mainly females, from a variety of Greek state schools, participated in this study, who completed the scales at the middle of a school year. The results showed that teachers attributed the perceived positive classroom situation to themselves- related factors (mainly, teaching method, care for children’ learning), and the perceived negative classroom situation to children- related factors (particularly, lack of interest in the subject matter, bad behaviour). Also, self-efficacy had positive effect on attributions (mainly, personal controllability) for the negative classroom situation and, unexpectedly, mainly, positive classroom situation. The findings of this study support the necessity of teacher in-service training. Attributional retraining program could change teachers’ maladaptive attributions for classroom situations, and program based on self-efficacy theory could enhance teachers’ competence beliefs. Key words: Attributions, classroom situation, self-efficacy. Introduction Teachers’ self-efficacy34 and attributions for positive and negative situations in the classroom are important sociocognitive constructs of their emotional, cognitive and motivational processes (Jesus & Lens, 2005; Peterson & Steen, 34 Self-efficacy refers to ‘beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations (Bandura, 1997, p. 2). In the present study teacher efficacy is operationalized as ‘‘personal teaching efficacy’’ (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk, 2001). 1348 Kindergarten Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and Attribution 2005; Pintrich & Schunk 2002; Stephanou & Tsapakidou, 2007b; Weiner, 2002). For example, teachers experience pride, except future success, continue to try, and, enhance the possibilities of future success, when a positive situation is attributable to internal, controllable and stable factor, such as constant effort or ability (Bruning, Schraw, & Running, 1999; Stephanou & Mastora, 2007). Contrarily, by attributing failure to internal, personal controllable and stable factors (e.g., lack of capacity, lack of ability, lack of long- term effort), teachers minimize their personal efficacy, maximize their expectations of future failure, increase their possibilities of future failure, and experience shame and, probably hopelessness, the feeling that no amount of effort can lead to success (Jesus & Lens, 2005; Peterson, Maier, & Seligman, 1993; Stephanou & Tsapakidou, 2007a). Similarly, self-efficacious teachers expend great effort on an activity, exhibit great persistence when confronting obstacles, do not experience increased anxiety when they engage in a challenging situation, and, in the face difficulty, remain task-diagnostic and continue to search for solutions to problem (Bandura, 1997; Caprara, Barbaranelli, Borgogni, & Steca, 2003; Maddux, 2005; Pajeres & Schunk, 2005; Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk, 2001). Furthermore, teachers’ attributions for situations in the classroom are of primary importance for students’ motivation, achievement, learning, and wellbeing, since these attributions comprise teachers’ thoughts, emotions and behaviour towards students (Bronk, 2001; Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008; Weiner, 2002). For example, a student, whose failure in a task is attributed by the teacher to student’s insufficient ability to complete the task, may experience learned helplessness, feel negative affects, adopt negative opinion of the task, express disinclination towards future involvement in that task, and, probably, fail (Heyman, Dweck, & Cain, 1992; Ilgen & Davis, 2000; Peterson & Steen, 2005). Similarly, self-efficacious teachers use praise, rather than criticism, to persevere with low-achieving students, are task oriented, use a variety of teaching methods to tap students’ needs, are more accepting of students, use effective strategies of handling student misbehavior in classroom, and help them to perform better (Bruning et al., 1999; Coladarci, 1992; Goddard & Goddard, 2001; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Rydell & Henricsson, 2004; Stephanou & Tsapakidou, 2007b). Attributions and self-efficacy associated each other, and they are included in Weiner’s (2002) attributional theory of achievement motivation, and Jesus and Lens’ (2005) integrated cognitive-motivational model for teacher motivation, on which this study is based. According to Winer’s theory, the perceived causes, dominantly ability (aptitude or acquired skill) and effort (short- and long- term), of past achievement behaviour are influenced by environmental (e.g., social norms, situational conditions) and personal (e.g., attributional biases, selfbeliefs, schemata) factors. In turn, attributions, wich are categorized into causal Georgia Stephanou, Eirini Sivropoulou 1349 dimensions of locus of causality (internal / external to the performer), controllability (controllable / uncontrollable by the performer or others), and stability (stable / unstable over time), influence affects and success expectations. Affects and success expectations, then, influence actual future behaviour. Jesus and Lens’ (2005) integrated cognitive-motivational model for teacher motivation suggests that self-efficacious teachers expect greater control over the teaching / learning process. In turn, the synthesis of this high control expectations over the teaching / learning process and high efficacy expectations contributes in the formation of teachers’ high success expectations, which is positively related to future success. On the other hand, a teacher’s attributions for past teaching performance influence the teacher’s self-efficacy and control expectations. Previous researches for the effect of self-efficacy on attributions, have shown that a favourable self-efficacy is consistent with attributions to ability (internal, stable, external uncontrollable) and to constant effort (internal, relative stable, personal controllable) as perceived causes for success, but it is not consistent with a disposition to attribute failure to lack of ability (Brown, Dutton, & Cook, 2001; Pajares & Schunk, 2005). Self-efficacious individuals attribute failure to insufficient inconstant effort, that is changeable, or deficient knowledge and skills, which are acquirable (Pajares & Schunk, 2005; Schunk et al., 2008). In contrast, non self-efficacious individuals attribute failure to internal, global and stable factors (e.g., lack of ability), while they externalize success (Maddux, 2005). Attributions for success and failure. Individuals tend to attribute their success and failure in a given task to themselves and to environmental factors, respectively (Schunk et al., 2008; Weiner, 2001). According to ‘actor-observer’ theory of attributions (Jones & Nisbett, 1972; Watson, 1982), observers tend to attribute actor’s behaviour to dispositions, while they tend to attribute their own behaviour to environmental circumstances. In the case of actor’s (student) success / failure, the observer (teachers), whose personal identity depend on actor’s performance, protect themselves, by attributing failure to actor, and enhance themselves, by attributing success mainly to situation and to themselves (Stephanou, 2005; Watson, 1982). Aim. The vast majority of previous researches have focused on teachers’ attributions for students’ achievement- related behaviour. Also, little research has examined the link between teacher self-efficacy and attributions for classroom situations in kindergarten. This study aimed to examine (a) kindergarten teachers’ attributions for the perceived negative and positive classroom situations, and (b) the impact of teachers’ self-efficacy on the generation of their attributions for the perceived negative and positive classroom situations. 1350 Kindergarten Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and Attribution Hypotheses. Students will attribute the classroom situations to various factors, among them, children, self, teacher-student interaction and environment (Hypothesis 1). Positive classroom situations will be attributed to internal, stable, personal controllable and external uncontrollable (e.g., self properties) causes, while negative classroom situations will be ascribed to external, unstable, external controllable, and personal uncontrollable (e.g., environmentand children- related) causes (Hypothesis 2a). Mainly locus of causality will discriminate the positive from negative classroom situation (Hypothesis 2b). Self-efficacy will positively influence the formulation of attributions (Hypothesis 3a), mainly for negative classroom situation (Hypothesis 3b), and, particularly, locus of causality and controllability (Hypothesis 3c). Method Participants. Kindergarten teachers (n = 200), mainly females, from a variety of Greek state schools, participated in this study. Their average age was 32 years, and their teaching experience ranged from 2 to 25 years. Instruments. Attributions for positive and negative classroom situations. Causal Dimension Scale II (CDSII, McAuley et al., 1992) assessed attributions. Teachers mentioned the most important factor, which influenced the positive and the negative estimated classroom situation, and classified that factor along the four causal dimensions of locus of causality, stability, personal controllability (controllable / uncontrollable factors by the performer) and external controllability (controllable / uncontrollable by others). Each of the attributional dimensions consists of three items (from 1= negative pole to 9 = positive pole). The wording of the questions for the two classroom situations was the same except for the situation name. In positive classroom situation, alpha value was .76, .79, .81, and .78 for locus of causality, personal controllability, stability and external controllability, respectively. In negative classroom situation, alpha value was .76, .77, .80, and .80 for locus of causality, personal controllability, stability and external controllability, respectively. Teachers’ responses to the open-ended question about the cause of the perceived negative and positive classroom situations were categorized into general categories of children’s interest in the subject matter, children’s behaviour, teacher-student communication, teaching method, teachers’ preparation for classes, teachers’ care for children’s learning, teachers’ teaching motivation and other causes (e.g., educational system, teacher-parent relationship). The reliability of this coding scheme was tested with the percentage of agreement between two judges, who were familiar with attributional theories. There was agreement in 93% of the categorized responses. Teachers’ self-efficacy. Teachers’ self-efficacy was estimated via a 5-point seven item scale. The scale was designed by the researches, based on previous literature (see Stephanou & Georgia Stephanou, Eirini Sivropoulou 1351 Tsapakidou, 2007b). The items measured teachers’ beliefs in their ability to handle effectively various tasks and challenges related to their role in classes (i.e., ‘I am capable of dealing effectively with the problem behaviors of my students’). Factor analysis revealed one factor explaining 70% of the variance, while alpha value was .85. Positive and negative classroom situations. Teachers were asked to think about the causes of the positive and negative estimated, according to their judgment, situations in their class during the current school year. Personal information. Teachers were asked to respond to a short set of questions about personal factors such as gender, age and teaching experience. Procedure. Written and oral explanations about the aim of this study were provided to the teachers. The participants were assured of anonymity and confidentiality. To match the scales that were responded by the same teacher, teachers were asked to choose a code name and use it on all the scales. Teachers completed first the scales for classroom situations, and then, after one week, the self-efficacy scale. All the participants completed the scales in the middle of a school year, to ensure that teachers had good time to form an impression about the examined variables. Results Attributions for negative and positive estimated classroom situations Inspection of Table 1 reveals the variability of the attributions across classroom situations, and within each of them. The χ2 test for the distribution of responses within each classroom situation showed significant differences between the attributions. Teachers more often attributed the positive classroom situation to themselves- related factors, such as suitable teaching method (35.00%), care for children’s learning (21.00%) and adequate preparation for classes (14.00%), than to other factors, χ2(7, N = 200) = 134.08, p < .01. In contrast, teachers mainly attributed the perceived negative classroom situation to children- related factors, such as children’s lack of interest in the subject matter (34.00%) and bad behaviour (24.00%), and to negative teacher-children communication (14.00%), χ2(7, N = 200) = 141.10, p < .01. Also, the frequency of each of the attributions differed between the classroom situations. Specifically, positive classroom situations, compared to negative classroom situations, were more often attributed by the teachers to effective teaching method, χ2(1, N = 84) = 37.30, p < .01, to their own care for children’s learning, χ2(1, N = 48) = 27.00, p < .01, and to their own adequate preparation for classes, χ2(1, N = 36) = 14.25, p < .01. The pattern was reverse in students’ interest in the subject matter, χ2(1, N= 84) = 32.20, p < .01, in children’s behaviour, χ2(1, N= 56) = 32.20, p < .01, and in teacher teaching motivation, χ2(1, N= 30) = 1352 Kindergarten Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and Attribution 6.50, p < .05, since teachers attributed the negative classroom situations, rather than the positive classroom situations, to these factors. Table 1: Frequency of teachers’ attributions for positive and negative estimated classroom situation Positive classroom situation Attributions Negative classroom situation f % 16 8.00 68 34.00 6 3.00 48 24.00 Teacher – student communication 22 11.00 28 14.00 Teaching method 70 35.00 14 7.00 Teachers’ preparation for class 28 14.00 6 3.00 Teachers’ care for children’s learning 42 21.00 6 3.00 Teachers’ teaching motivation 8 4.00 22 11.00 Other (e.g., educational system, teacher-parent relationship) 8 4.00 8 4.00 Children’s interest in the subject matter Children’s behavior f % Note: Attributions are positive and negative in positive and negative classroom situation, respectively. Repeated measures MANOVA with the perceived classroom situation (positive / negative) as between-subjects factor and attributional dimensions as within-subjects factor showed a significant main effect of classroom situation, F(1, 398) = 240.10, p < .01, η2 = .56, a significant main effect of attributional dimensions, F(3, 396) = 71.55, p < .01, η2 = .34, and a significant multivariate effect, F(3, 396) = 171.70, p < .01, η2 = .56. The findings from subsequent ANOVAs and examination of the mean scores (Table 2) indicated that teachers made more internal and personal controllable attributions for the positive classroom situation than the negative classroom situation. Furthermore, teachers made stable and external uncontrollable attributions for the positive classroom situation, whereas they made unstable and external controllable attributions for the negative classroom situation. The results from discriminant analysis, with stepwise method, confirmed the univariate effects and, in addition, showed that stability (.95) was the most powerful dimension in separating the two groups classroom situations-, followed by locus of causality (.50). Personal and external controllability had no significant contribution in separating the two groups. 1353 Georgia Stephanou, Eirini Sivropoulou Table 2: Discriminant analysis for teachers’ attributional dimensions for positive and negative estimated classroom situations Positive classroom situation Negative classroom situation Mean SD Mean SD Wilks' Lambda F(1, 398) Discrimina ting power η2 Locus of causality 6.92 1.60 5.10 2.22 .81 92.46 .50 .18 Personal controllability 7.30 1.20 6.05 1.91 .86 63.32 .391 .13 Stability 5.95 2.18 2.50 1.62 .55 328.95 .95 .44 External controllability 4.50 2.10 5.07 2.10 .98 6.10 -.181 .015 Note: F < 6.10, p < .05, F > 6.10, p < .01; 1 No significant contribution in discriminating the two groups. The repeated measures ANOVAs, examining differences between attributional dimensions within each classroom situation, showed a significant effect of dimensions in positive classroom situation, F(3, 197) = 111.00, p < .01, η2 = .62, and in negative classroom situation, F(3, 197) = 194.70, p < .01, η2 = .74. Inspection of the mean scores and the post hoc pairwise comparisons showed that teachers attributed the positive classroom situation more to personal controllable and internal factors than to stable and external uncontrollable factors, while they ascribed the negative classroom situation mainly to unstable causes than to the rest of the causes. Hypothesis 1 was totally confirmed, and Hypotheses 2a, 2b were partly confirmed. Effects of self-efficacy on attributions for classroom situation. The results from a series of bivariate regression analysis, in which self-efficacy was the predictor variable and each of the attributional dimensions was the predicted variable, partly confirmed Hypotheses 3a, 3b and 3c. In positive classroom situation, as teachers became more self-efficacious, the internal, b = .16, R2 = .03, F(1, 198) = 5.45, p < .05, stable, b = .31, R2 = .10, F(1,198) = 18.40, p < .01, and, mainly, personal controllable, b = .35, R2 = .12, F(1,198) = 26.90, p < .01, attributions became more favorable. In negative classroom situation, the high self-efficacious teachers, compared to low self-efficacious teachers, made more external controllable, b = .19, R2 = .04, F(1, 198) = 7.35, p < .01, personal uncontrollable, b = .21, R2 = .07, F(1, 198) = 8.95, p < .01, and, particularly, 1354 Kindergarten Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and Attribution external, b = -.26, R2 = .09, F(1, 198) = 15.30, p < .01, attributions. Self-efficacy did not influence external controllability in positive classroom situation, and stability in negative classroom situation. Discussion Teachers attributed the positive and the negative classroom situations to various causes, reflecting the high importance of classroom experience in their personal identity (Stephanou, 2005; Weiner, 2002). Furthermore, the nature of the attributional elements evidenced that the teachers related the classroom experience to teaching and learning processes. This specific finding underlines the necessity of examining teachers’ perceptions about their role in the classroom, and the effects of these perceptions on attributions and the types of strategies they use to handle students’ positive/negative behaviour and learning outcomes in the classroom. Teachers also mentioned their own care for students’ learning, underlining their significant role in forming warm classroom climate. The observed attributional pattern for positive classroom situations ensures an important source for teachers’ high self-esteem and future success, while the one for negative classroom situations protects teachers’ self-esteem (Weiner, 2002). However, denying responsibility for negative situations minimizes the possibilities of future positive situation (Weiner, 2002). Also, dispositional attributions to students for negative classroom situation may keep teacher at a distance from the students and the ‘problem’, and thus reduce the chance to see that the attribution was wrong, as previous research has supported (see Langer, 2005; Peterson & Steen, 2005). That stability was the most powerful attributional dimension in discriminating the two groups of teachers (positive / negative situation) may be partly explained by the fact that the teachers estimated classroom situations over the school year, and not just a specific situation. The findings for the role of teachers’ self-efficacy on their attributions for the situations in the classroom suggest that the teachers perceived that they had control of the positive situations, not the negative ones. Thus, self-efficacy mainly affected attributions for positive classroom situations, particularly personal controllability. In conclusion, the findings of this study contribute to understanding of teacher motivation, and of the relationship between teacher self-efficacy and attributions. Attributional retraining program could change teachers’ maladaptive attributions for classroom situations (Forsterling, 1985; Schunk et al., 2008). Similarly, based on self-efficacy theory, program could enhance teachers’ competence beliefs for overcoming the problem (Dweck, 1999; Maddux, 2005). Research is needed to examine the interactive effect of the Georgia Stephanou, Eirini Sivropoulou 1355 examined factors on teachers’ behaviour towards students, and on students’ behavior in the classroom in kindergarten. References Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Brok, P. den (2001). Teaching and students outcomes: A study on teachers’ thoughts and actions from an interpersonal and a learning activities perspective. Utrecht: W.C.C. Brown, J. D., Dutton, K. A., & Cook, K. E. (2001). From the top down: Selfesteem and self-evaluation. Cognition and Emotion, 15, 615- 631. Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Running, R. R. (1999). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C. Borgogni, L., & Steca, P. (2003). Efficacy beliefs as determinants of teachers’ job satisfaction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 821 - 832. Coladarci, T. (1992). 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Social emotions and personality inferences: A scaffold for a new direction in the study of achievement motivation. Paper at the 8th International Conference on Motivation. Moskow, Russia. Language Learning Strategies for Academic Purposes Yasin Aslan, Selcuk University – Turkey Abstract In this study, the significance of identifying and developing strategies in a context of learning foreign language for academic purposes is examined. The theoretical background, concerning language learning strategies is provided, various definitions and taxonomies of strategies- presented by certain researchers such as Oxford, Rubin, Stern are quoted and the importance of teacher’s role is explained. Our study was carried out with 101 university students in order to identify the range and the types of learning strategies employed by the students while reading, listening, speaking and writing for academic purposes. The results provided a wealth of data about the learning strategies used, as well as the difficulties students face in the specific context. Knowledge about students’ learning preferences needs and strategies, on the part of the teachers as well as of the students themselves, should lead to appropriate strategy training, contributing to students’ strategy development and reflection on the learning process. Key words: Education, foreign language, language learning strategies. Introduction There is a common proverb most of us know: “Give a man a fish and he eats for a day. Teach him how to fish and he eats for a lifetime”. In terms of language teaching and learning, this proverb means that if students are provided with answers, the immediate problem is solved. But if they are taught the strategies to work out the answers for themselves, they are empowered to manage their own learning. According to cognitive psychology, learners are not passive when learning a foreign or second language, but they are actively involved. Research shows that successful language learners develop different language learning strategies and can choose the most effective for a given task. If teachers want to help their students become independent and successful, they need to help them develop 1360 Language Learning Strategies for Academic Purposes appropriate learning strategies so they can deal with language tasks successfully. Even though used by many prominent writers (such as Rubin,1975; O’Malley et al, 1985; Oxford, 1990) the term strategy is controversial. Consensus is not assisted by some writers’ use of conflicting terminology such as learning behaviours (Wesche, 1977; Politzer and McGroarty, 1985), tactics (Seliger, 1984) and techniques (Stern, 1992) more or less (but not always exactly) synonymously with the term strategy. Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991, p.199) opt for the term strategy since, as they point out, Rubin (1975) used it “in perhaps the earliest study in this area and it enjoys the widest currency today”. For this reason, strategy is the term which will be used for the purposes of the present work. Definition and Classification of Language Learning Strategies A language learning strategy is “like a tactic used by a player. It is a series of skills used with a particular learning process in mind” (Williams and Burden 2002:145). While some of these strategies are observable, most are mental processes that are not directly observable. However, both observable and non observable strategies help students become autonomous and successful language learners. The literature abounds with attempts to define the explicit as well as implicit dynamics which manifest themselves so far as the language learning strategies are concerned. Since the work done by researchers such as Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975) in the mid-seventies, awareness has been slowly growing of the importance of the strategies used by learners in the language learning process, since ultimately, like the proverbial horse led to water but which must do the drinking itself, even with the best teachers and methods, students are the only ones who can actually do the learning. As Nyikos and Oxford (1993, p.11) deftly put it: “learning begins with the learner”. This growing awareness has resulted in more recent years in what Skehan (1989, p.285) calls an “explosion of activity” in the field of language learning strategy research. In spite of this activity, however, defining and classifying language learning strategies remains no easy task. Wenden and Rubin (1987, p.7) talk of “the elusive nature of the term”, whereas Ellis (1994, p.529) describes the concept as “fuzzy”. One of the earliest researchers in this field, Rubin (1975, p.43) provided a very broad definition of learning strategies as “the techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge”. In 1981 (pp.124-126) she identified two kinds of learning strategies: those which contribute directly to learning, and those which contribute indirectly to learning. The direct learning strategies she divided into six types (clarification/verification, monitoring, memorization, guessing/inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning, practice), and the indirect 1361 Yasin Aslan learning strategies she divided into two types (creating opportunities for practice, production tricks). Stern (1975) also produced a list of ten language learning strategies, at the top of which he put “personal learning style” (p.311). Stern later defined “strategies” as “broadly conceived intentional directions” (1992, p.261), which is more similar to the definition of the term styles as used by other writers such as Willing (1988) and Nunan (1991). The “behavioural manifestations of the strategies” (Stern, 1992, p.261) he called techniques - a definition which would fit better with what Rubin (1975) calls strategies. The fact that researchers are far from reaching a consensus on terminology caused several inconsistencies to remain until now. R. Oxford identified the different factors that affect the choice of strategies: degree of awareness, stage of learning, task requirements, teacher expectations, age, sex, nationality/ethnicity, general leaning style, personality traits, motivation level and purpose for learning the language. She also developed a taxonomy (see table 1) which divides language strategies into two main groups: direct and indirect strategies. Table 1: Oxford's strategy classification system (1990) Direct strategies: Memory, Cognitive and Compensation Strategies Memory Strategies Cognitive Strategies Compensation Strategies They help learners to understand or produce messages in the target language despite limitations of knowledge. Indirect strategies: Metacognitive, Affective and Social Strategies They help students store and They involve more direct manipulation of retrieve new information the learning material itself. Metacognitive Strategies Affective Strategies Social Strategies They involve planning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, and monitoring, and evaluating one's progress. They help students to regulate emotions, motivations and attitudes. They help to learn through interaction with others. Although Oxford’s taxonomy is “perhaps the most comprehensive classification of learning strategies to date” (Ellis, 1994, p.539), it is still, of necessity, somewhat selective since “dozens and perhaps hundreds of such strategies exist” (Oxford, Lavine and Crookall, 1989, p.29). She justifies her position by including such behaviours as learning strategies on the grounds that 1362 Language Learning Strategies for Academic Purposes they “help learners become more fluent in what they already know and may lead learners to gain new information about what is appropriate or permissible in the target language”. The Development of Language Learning Strategy Theory Language learning strategies have been attracting the interest of contemporary educators because of their potential to enhance learning. The development of language learning strategy could be summarized briefly as follows: The grammar-translation method relied on the teaching of grammar and practising translation as its main teaching and learning activities (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1992). The major focus of this method tended to be reading and writing, with very little attention paid to speaking and listening. Vocabulary was typically taught in lists, and a high priority was given to accuracy and to the ability to construct correct sentences. Instruction was typically conducted in the students’ native language. Consequently, the type of grammar-translation courses remembered with distaste by thousands of school learners. The audio lingual method grew partly out of a reaction against the limitations of the grammar-translation method, and partly out of the urgent wartime demands for fluent speakers of languages such as German, Italian and Japanese. The “Army Method” was developed to produce military personnel with conversational proficiency in the target language. After the war, the “Army Method” attracted the attention of linguists already looking for an alternative to grammar-translation and became known as the audio lingual method. By the sixties, audiolingualism was widespread (Richards and Rodgers, 1986). The audio lingual method was based on the belief that speaking and listening are the most basic language skills and should be emphasised before reading and writing (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1992). Method In our classroom-based study which aims to research whether learner strategy training makes a difference in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes, we involved 101students, 71 of whom were females and 30 males, in a 10-week programme. The activities have been designed to help them reflect on their own learning, to develop their knowledge of, and ability to apply learning strategies, to assess their own progress, and to apply their language skills beyond the classroom. The study has been conducted with the participation of university students attending to Selcuk University, Education Faculty, ELT Department to identify the range and the types of learning strategies employed by the students while reading, listening, speaking and writing for academic purposes. In a similar Yasin Aslan 1363 study, Nunan (1995) concluded that language classrooms should have a dual focus, teaching both content and an awareness of language processes. Discussion and Suggestions In this section, we will deal with studies ranging from those which focus on successful and unsuccessful language learners to the ones investigating factors that affect strategy choice as well as the effects of strategy instruction. There are several important theoretical assumptions which underlie contemporary ideas on language learning strategies. Language learning strategy theory postulates that at least part of this differential success rate is attributable to the varying strategies which different learners bring to the task. From this perspective, which views students as being able to consciously influence their own learning, the learning of language becomes a cognitive process similar in many ways to any other kind of learning (McLaughlin, 1978). It is a view diametrically opposed to Krashen’s Monitor and Acquisition/Learning Hypotheses (Krashen, 1976; 1977) which state that language cannot be consciously learnt but only acquired through natural communication and therefore, by implication, that conscious learning strategies are not useful in the development of language. Other studies which have attempted to investigate the relationship between language learning strategies and success in language development by speakers of other languages have produced mixed results. O’Malley et al (1985, 1985a) discovered that, although students at all levels reported the use of an extensive variety of learning strategies, higher level students reported greater use of metacognitive strategies leading the researchers to conclude that the more successful students are probably able to exercise greater metacognitive control over their learning. The study by Green and Oxford (1995) came to the same conclusion. It failed to discover, however, any evidence of differing language learning strategy use between the sexes. The hypothesis that some of the success achieved by good language learners may be as a result of more effective language learning strategies is intuitively appealing on grounds that the teachability component has meant that language learning strategies are increasingly attracting the attention of contemporary educators and researchers who are keen to harness the potential which language learning strategies would seem to have to enhance an individual’s ability to learn language. Another prominent strategy training sequence used in cognitive academic language learning approach manifests itself with the model of O’Malley and Chamot (1990) that involves a sequence of five steps. (See table 2). In this model, teachers help students identify the strategies they are already using, then 1364 Language Learning Strategies for Academic Purposes they present and explain a new strategy. At the final stage of this model, students evaluate their success and develop transfer of strategies to new tasks. Table 2: O'Malley and Chamot’s model for teaching learning strategies Preparation: Develop student awareness of different strategies through small group retrospective interviews about school tasks, modelling think-aloud then having students think aloud in small groups, discussion of interviews and think-alouds. Presentation: Develop student knowledge about strategies by providing rationale for strategy use, describing and naming strategy, and modelling strategy. Practice: Develop student skills in using strategies for academic learning through co-operative learning tasks, think-alouds while problem solving, peer tutoring in academic tasks, group discussions. Evaluation: Develop student ability to evaluate own strategy use through writing strategies used immediately after task, discussing strategy use in class, keeping dialogue journals (with teacher) on strategy use. Expansion: Develop transfer of strategies to new tasks by discussions on metacognitive and motivational aspects of strategy use, additional practice on similar academic tasks, assignments to use learning strategies on tasks related to cultural backgrounds of students.' Conclusion The literature on language learning strategies for writers to refer to the “recent” nature of research in this field indicates that the last three decades ushered in several views as regards the aspects intrinsic to the nature of the language learning strategies. In fact, the foundation studies in this area were conducted in the mid seventies (for instance by Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975). The main questions, then, are : If language learning strategies have as much potential for enhancing learning, why has it taken nearly a quarter of a century for research findings to be applied to the classroom? Why do teachers give them such scant attention and understand them so poorly? And why has it taken so long to even establish a generally agreed definition and classification system? By trying to locate language learning strategies within the framework of other theories, methods and approaches to the teaching of language to speakers of other languages, we attempted to highlight the various uses of language learning strategies for academic purposes. Each new method or approach has Yasin Aslan 1365 tended to be heralded as the answer to all problems, and, in the rush to welcome the newcomer, the older methods and approaches have often been unceremoniously abandoned in what might be called a baby-and-bathwater type reaction. As Larsen-freeman (1897, p.7) puts it: “It is common for teachers today to practice a principled eclecticism, combining techniques and principles from various methods in a carefully reasoned manner”. Historical experience lends credence that it is important that we should keep the students also in perspective. It is unlikely that learning strategies will prove to be a magic wand to solve all language learning problems any more than any of the other eagerly-seized new ideas have proven to be in the last 50 years. But, used eclectically, in conjunction with other techniques, learning strategies may well prove to be an extremely useful addition to a language learner’s tool kit. References Ellis, Rod (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press Green, John, M & Rebecca Oxford (1995). A closer look at learning strategies, L2 Proficiency and Gender, TESOL Quarterly, 29/2, 261-297. Krashen, Stephen (1976). Formal and informal linguistic environments in language acquisition and language learning, TESOL Quarterly, 10, 15768 Krashen, Stephen (1977). Some issues relating to the Monitor Model. In H. Brown et al (eds), 144-158 Larsen-Freeman, Diane & Michael H Long (1991). An introduction to second language acquisition research. London & NY: Longman McLaughlin, B (1978). The Monitor model: Some considerations, Language Learning, 28, 309-32 methodological Nyikos, Martha & Rebecca Oxford (1993). A factor Analytic Study of Language- Learning Strategy Use: Interpretations from InformationProcessing Theory and Social Psychology, The Modern Language Journal, 77, 11-22 Nunan, David (1991). Language teaching methodology. New York: Phoenix Nunan, David (1995). Learner strategy training in the classroom: A case study. Unpublished paper. O’Malley, J Michael, Anna Uhl Chamot, Gloria Stewner-Manzanares, Lisa Kupper & Rocco P Russo (1985). Learning strategies used by beginning and intermediate ESL students, Language Learning, 35/1, 21-46 1366 Language Learning Strategies for Academic Purposes O’Malley, J Michael & Anna Uhl Chamot (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oxford, R L (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House Oxford, Rebecca L, Roberta Z Lavine & David Crookall (1989). Language learning strategies, the communicative approach and their classroom implications, Foreign Language Annals, 22/1, 29-39 Richards, Jack C, John Platt & Heidi Platt (1992). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. Harlow: Longman Richards, Jack C & Theodore Rodgers (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rubin, J (1975). What the ‘good language learner’ can teach us, TESOL Quarterly, 9, 41-51. Seliger, H (1984). Processing universals in second language acquisition. In F. Eckman, L Bell & D Nelson (eds) 36-47 Skehan, Peter (1989). Individual differences in second-language learning. London: Edward Arnold Stern, H H (1975). What can we learn from the good language learner?, Canadian Modern Language Review, 34, 304-318 Stern, H H (1992). Issues and options in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wesche, M (1977). Learning behaviours of successful adult students on intensive language training. In Henning, C (ed) Proceedings of the Los Angeles Second Language Research Forum, 355-370. English Department, University of California at Los Angeles. Wenden, A L & Joan Rubin (eds) (1987). Learner strategies in language learning. UK: Prentice Hall Williams, M., R. Burden, (2002). Psychology for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Willing, Ken (1988). Learning styles in adult migrant education. Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research. Mathematical Modelling Activities in Primary Mathematics Education Halil Ardahan, Selcuk University – Turkey Abstract Mathematical Modelling is a process and new approach to applications and problem solving process of teaching/learning mathematics. However, the main attainment is to get a product at the end of the process but it is important to apply the new approaches and foresights to point out and explain the relations between the real world and mathematics. More clearly, MM is one of the best ways to improve critical mathematical thinking abilities, reasoning, perceiving mathematical order, to improve personal intuitions and estimation and problem solving skills and getting adaptation to new situations. So, it is focused on the importance of MM by the new mathematical curriculums (For example, NCTM, 2003; ICMI, 2004, TTKB, 2005). National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) stated that to support the students’ understanding of mathematical thinking deeply different representations are used as standards for the education of the prospective teachers (NCTM, 2003). The importance of the MM is stressed in the last “Mathematics Teaching Programs” in Turkey (MEB-TTKB, s.19, 2005). In the light of the above literature, a case study was designed on the effects of MM on Teaching Mathematics. After reviewing the literature and curriculum of mathematics, some qualitative and quantitative models were designed by the author concerned with the Algebraic identities involved in mathematics curriculum for K-12. And then the original concept “directed area” was explored which is similar to directed numbers but totally different from it. This original concept presented in the conference of Computer Aided Teaching Mathematics and Mathematical Modelling held on March 7th, 2007 in Konya. This study involves the applications of the new concept “directed area” in the years 2004-2005. The Sample Space consists of 95 prospective teachers chosen randomly from the Primary Education Department of the Faculty of Education in Konya. Data was collected by a Dynamics Modeling and Lesson 1368 Mathematical Modelling Activities in Primary Mathematics Education Activities Scale (DMLAS) involving 10 items with 5 point-scale ranging from “always=5” to “ never=1” and semi-structured interviews. The descriptive and predictive statistic was used to evaluate the results. I am glad to announce that designed models and activities are very effective on the meaningful learning. We will share our modelling experience with the teachers of mathematics and mathematics educators. Key words: Teaching mathematics, mathematics modelling, meaningful learning 1. Introduction Prospective teachers (PTs) need to understand the fundamental principles that underlie school mathematics, so that they can teach it to diverse groups of students as a coherent, reasoned activity and communicate an appreciation of the elegance and power of the subject (CBMS, 2001). So, there is a big pressure on the teachers to use ICTs in the classrooms. One of the main aims of the Teaching Mathematics is to improve the mathematical thinking skills, problem solving strategies, and using the mathematics in the real world situations. Students do not want to learn mathematics in the abstract manner. They want to learn mathematics in the real world context. I believe in Dewey’s opinion that if we teach today as we taught yesterday, we rob our children of tomorrow. There are strong linear correlation between the quality of the teacher education and the professional behaviors ( Manullang, 2005).The teachers should act like a catalyst in a class full of experimentation and exciting discoveries (Kalsi, 2007). Mathematics education reforms stress the need of facilitators of learning and providence of mathematical thinking between the students in the last years (NCTM, 1991, Azita, 2003). Teachers ought to have competences to analyze the students’ learning with instructional materials and learning activities (McClain & Cobb, 2001). Students form their formal knowledge by their visual and spatial representations not by quantitative process (Pinto & Tall, 2002). Individual improvement plans involve reflective applications supporting group activities, problem based learning and evaluation methods of peers (The Higher Education Academy, 2006). In our opinion, teaching mathematics means “to constructing, to learn and to understand the knowledge” (Tall, 1997). Mathematical modelling is the transformation of the changes in the real world problems to the mathematical form (Meznik, 2005). Mathematical modelling is a process of construction of models using mathematical language and tools. Mathematical modelling in Teaching Mathematics is a very important method to improve the thinking skills, reasoning, perception, intuition, estimation, accommodation to the new faced Halil Ardahan 1369 situations and improving the problem solving skills. Mathematical modelling is a first critical step to understand the problem to solve. Since the dynamic modelling materials lead the students to reflective mathematical thinking, meaningful and anchored learning, constructing their knowledge by themselves using visual models it must be the basic component of the mathematics curriculum (Ardahan & Ersoy, 2001). Problem Definition The literature review started with the following problem definitions: 'how to design a mathematical model to explain the number operations and algebraic identities? And can we explain the concept area with the directed numbers? Literature has been sought with the following four key phrases concerning the above two questions: number operations, algebraic identities, directed area, mathematical modelling. The last keyword is used in order to see the old models of the algebraic identities. I saw that no body studied on the concept “directed area”. So, the answers to the above mentioned two questions constitute this study. In this study, the importance and reflections of the mathematical modelling in teaching and learning number operations and algebraic identities in the initial teacher training (ITT) courses were discussed. 2. Search Method The search began with literature review. The goal of this search was to find recent publications such as journals and web sites. By using search engine Internet Explorer for the concept “directed area” in mathematics we saw that there are 784 results. All of them belong to the Physics and Computer Engineering. None of them deal with the concept “directed area” in two dimensional Euclidean Spaces. If you search the concept in Turkish using Internet Explorer 6.0 or Mozilla Firefox 3.0 you can find nothing. While searching the literature we tried to find out the effect of modelling on learning skills and designed a Likert type five–point scale ranging from “strongly agree” to “ strongly disagree” deal with the number operations and algebraic identities. And then concerning the learning process of 5 E model of Constructivism instructional materials involving dynamic models were designed. A rectangular area can be represented by the multiplication of two positive directed numbers. How it can be given the meaning to the operation (+2).(-3)? Using the Directed Number Models, it can be written (-3) = (-1) (+3) to answer this question (Ardahan, 2007). Thus, a directed rectangular area can be explained by the product of two directed numbers such as (-1) and (+3). This area can be called “directed area”. Then, we can use the coordinate system to 1370 Mathematical Modelling Activities in Primary Mathematics Education visualize the arithmetic operations. Thus, it has been found out the authentic and effective mathematical modelling for directed number operations and algebraic identities. The designed activities including instructional materials applied on the group consist of 47 prospective teachers (PTs) of primary mathematics education, 26 Science educations and 26 social science educations chosen randomly and voluntarily from the Primary Education Department of Faculty of Education. At the end of the learning process the scale involving 11 items on the group to collect data about the learning process was applied. The data gathered from the DMLA scale evaluated by the descriptive and predictive analysis. Also, the effects of the program type, period of ages and gender to the learning process were also studied. 2.1. Sample Space of the Study The universe of the study consists of the prospective teachers (PTs) of the Primary Education Department in Faculty of Education and the Sample Space (SS) consist of 47 prospective teachers (PTs) from primary school mathematics education, 26 science education and 22 social science education. 58% of the PTs are male and 42% are females. Distributions of the sample by the group of ages show that 74% of the prospective teachers (PTs) range between 20 and 22 and the 26 % range between 23 and 25. Some characteristics of the Sample Space (SS) such as department, grade, and type of the university entrance scores are in the Table 2.1. Table.2.1: Distribution of the Sample by the Departments Departments Frequency Percent Valid Per. Cumulative Percent Pri. Maths. Edu. First 26 27.4 27.4 Pri. Maths. Edu. Sec. 21 18.9 18.9 27.4 46.3 Sci.Edu. First 26 26.3 26.3 72.6 Soc. Sci.Edu. Sec. 22 27.4 27.4 100.0 Total 95 100.0 100.0 Table.2.2: Distribution of the Sample by Classes Frequency Percent Valid Percent 3rd grade Classes 51 53.7 53.7 Cumulative Percent 53.7 4th grade 44 46.3 46.3 100.0 Total 73 100.0 100.0 1371 Halil Ardahan Table.2.3: Distribution of the Sample by the University Entrance Points Type Type of Score Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Numerical 69 72.6 72.6 72.6 Verbal 9 9.5 9.5 82.1 Equal weight 17 17.9 17.9 100 Total 95 100 100 2.2. Collecting Data Data were collected by the scale “ Dynamic Modelling and Lesson Activities Scale” DMLAS involving 5 open- ended questions constructed by the author and arguments in the classroom about the mathematical modelling and written document of the student about the opinions of the learning process. The Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was found 0, 77 grater than 0, 70 which shows the reliability of the study. 3. Data Analysis and Findings The arithmetic mean, standard deviation and variance of the 11 items took place in the scale applied on the prospective teachers. Table.3.1: Measures of Central Tendency CTs \ Qs Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 N 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 Mean 4.5 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.2 4.4 4.5 4.3 4.0 4.2 4.3 Std. Dev. .68 .91 .80 .70 .77 .87 .62 .74 .80 .68 .78 Variance .46 .82 .64 .49 .59 .75 .38 .54 .64 .47 .60 When we see the results dealing with the 11 items it has been seen that the opinions of the prospective teachers about the learning process designed relating to the mathematical modelling are very positive and homogeneous. Correlations between the qualified learning, learning desire, thinking and explaining mathematically, meaningful and anchored learning, and exploring knowledge, easy to recall the knowledge attainments are evaluated using the SPSS 10.0 and presented with the following table. 1372 Mathematical Modelling Activities in Primary Mathematics Education Table.3.2: Correlations between the Attainments in the Learning Process Correlation Q1 Q4 Q5 Q7 Q9 N 95 95 95 95 95 .35 ** Q1 Pearson Correlation. 1 .50 ** .38** .53 ** Q4 Pearson Correlation. .49** 1 .12 .28 ** .36 ** Q5 Pearson Correlation. .38** .12 1 .22 (*) .25 (*) Q7 Pearson Correlation. .53** .275** .217(*) 1 .169 Q9 Pearson Correlation. .35** .36** .25(*) .169 1 * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level. Table 3.2 shows that qualified learning depends on the learning desire, thinking and explaining mathematically, meaningful and anchored learning, exploring knowledge, easy to recall the knowledge activities in the learning process at the level of meaning 0, 54. The following table shows the correlation and levels of correlation briefly. Table.3.3: Qualified Learning Factors Model R R square Std. App. Err/ Std. Estimation of Err. Meaning level in Change Q1 .738 .545 .487 .000 When we calculate the correlation coefficient of the qualified leaning and gained attainments in the learning process it can be seen that mathematical modelling realizes the learning desire, motivation, exploring relations, meaningful and anchored learning at the level of meaning p<0,004. Table.3.4: Qualified Learning and Attainments Un standardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients Model Items t Sig. B Std. Error 1 (Constant) .06 .554 Q4 .33 .094 .343 .100 .920 3.545 Q5 .25 .083 .279 2.996 .001 .004 Q7 .31 .099 .285 3.190 .002 Q9 .06 .075 .074 .844 .401 Beta “The findings from the items 4, 5 and 7 support us to predict strongly that mathematical modelling realizes qualified learning. 1373 Halil Ardahan After regression analysis, to find out the direct and indirect factors affecting the qualified learning it has been made the path analysis. Path analysis involves only the meaningful statistical relations (p<0, 05). Figure.3.1: Path Analysis for Qualified Learning The factors involved in the items 4, 5 and 7 affecting directly and the factors involved in 7, 9 affecting indirectly related to item 4. 4. Proposals In the direction of the above literature review and the descriptive and predictive statistical findings it is convenient to present the following proposals. Because of the positive effects of mathematical modelling on mathematical thinking and meaningful learning, we strongly stress that it must me used mathematical modelling during the teaching and learning mathematical concepts and problem solving process. 1. 2. 3. Prospective teachers (PTs) ought to gain proficiency on mathematical modelling. Distance education opportunities for the prospective and in-service teacher’s education on mathematical modelling must be prepared. Lesson plans and learning process must be designed by the lesson activities involving mathematical modelling. Mathematical Modelling Activity In this section, a mathematical model related with the algebraic identity 1-x2 = (1+x)(1-x) using a new concept defined by the author “directed area” will be given. 1374 Mathematical Modelling Activities in Primary Mathematics Education Activity. (Visualization and meaningful learning) Let us construct the mathematical model of the algebraic identity 1-x2=(1x)(1+x), x ∈R using the concept “directed area”. 1. Construct a suitable mathematical model for a problem. Figure. 3.3: Directed Area Model 2. Collect Data from the model constructed for problem. The rectangular directed area with he sides (1-x) and (1+x) are: positive directed area = +A1= +1 and A2= +x, negative directed area = - A3 = -x and -A4 = - x2 3. Construct a Mathematical Relation among the Data Collection. The total rectangular directed area consist of the area +A and –A as follows: A = +A1+A2 - A3 -A4 = +1+x-x -x2 that is the required relation. 4. Generalize the Mathematical Relation. 1-x2= (1-x) (1+x) , x ∈R the required generalization? that is References Ardahan, H. & Ersoy, H.( 2001).” Issues on Integrating Computer Algebra System in Teaching Mathematics: A Functional and Programming Approach”. ICTM-5: Derive & TI-89/92 Session, Special Group 1, 6-10 Aug. 2001, University of Klagenfurt, Austria. Ardahan, H.(2007) Computer Aided Education and Mathematical Modelling, S.U. Faculty of Education, Erol Güngör Conference Hall, 6 March, 42090, Konya, Turkey Azita, M.(2003) The Utility of Case Study Methodology in Mathematics Teacher Preparation, Teacher Education Quarterly, p.113- 125. CBMS. (2001) The Mathematical Education of Teachers: Part 1. Washington, DC: Mathematical Association of America. http://www.cbmsweb.org/ MET_ Document /chapter_2.htm Halil Ardahan 1375 Cheng, A.K. (2004) Teaching Mathematical Modelling in Singapore Schools, The Mathematics Educator, 2001, Vol. 6, No.1, Singapore Kalsi, A.( 2008) Math Education of Elementary Teachers: A Challenging Issue, University of Maryland, http://www.math.umd.edu/~dac/650/ kalsipaper.html#Ref Manullang, M.( 2003) Quality of Teaching and Learning Interaction for Mathematics Teachers: A Case Study, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, State University of Medan, Indonesia McClain, K., & Cobb, P. (2001). Supporting students’ ability to reason about data, Educational Studies in Mathematics, 45(1-3), 103-129. Meznik, I.(1999) Modelling as a Support in Teaching of Mathematics. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Mathematics Education into 21st Century: Societal Challenges, Issues and Approaches (Ed. A Rogerson), Volume II, Third World Forum-Project Egypt 2000, Cairo 1999, 95-100, ISBN 977-231-039-2 NCTM(2000) Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics, NCTM,:Reston 2000 Pinto. M & Tall, D (2002) Building formal mathematics on visual imagery:a case study and theory, www.warwick.ac.uk/staff/Davit.Tall/pdfs/ dot2002a-pinto-flm.pdf Tall, D.(1997) Metaphorical Objects in Advanced Mathematical thinking, www.warwick.ac.uk/staff/Davit.Tall/pdfs/dot1997f-metaforical-amt.pdf The Higher Education Academy (2006) “What is Reflective Practice?”, International Journal of Computers for Mathematical Learning 1: 61-65, 1997, http://www. ukvle. ac.uk /resorces/ reflection /what.html. Media Literacy Education in Balkan Countries: The Greece and Turkey Case Belgin Tanrıverdi, Kocaeli University – Turkey Abstract The mass communication process via (mass) media has a great potential of reaching people all around the world. This may foster cosmopolitanism and democracy, but it also holds the danger of an increasing manipulation because of the fact that media can never be neutral and value-free. While some studies do not see a harmful impact of media, most come to the conclusion, that media can have a negative influence on children’s actions and views. Media literacy education can be an alternative to these ways of censorship and represents an effective approach to widely shared concerns about the mass media's influence on people. In this study, formal education systems in Greece and Turkey are compared and contrasted in terms of media literacy education. At the end of the study, it was understood that media literacy education in both countries has not found its way in the curriculum of primary and secondary education as it is recommended by some initiatives such as UNESCO, European Council etc. Key words: Media literacy education, primary and secondary education, Greece, Turkey Introduction The objective of the European Union (EU) is to become the world’s most advanced information society by the year 2010. The rapid development of digital technologies has thus made more urgent an issue that has been pressing for some time: the need for European citizens to fully understand the means by which information, ideas and opinions are now created, circulated and shared in modern societies: in other words, for a media literate population. “Today, media literacy is as central to active and full citizenship as literacy was at the beginning of 19th century"35 35 Provided by Information Society and Media Commissioner Viviane Reding. 1378 Media Literacy Education in Balkan Countries: The Greece and Turkey Case The most basic definition of media literacy is provided by OFCOM, which states that media literacy consists of the ability to access, understand and create communications in a variety of contexts36. It includes the command of previous forms of literacy: reading and writing (from understanding to creative skills), audiovisual, digital and the new skills required in a climate of media convergence–that is the merging of electronic media (mass communication) and digital media (multimedia communication) which occurs in the advanced stages of development of information society. Media literacy is complemented with a series of broader considerations37: (1) The concept of media (with its corresponding messages and languages) refers to all those that form part of daily life and incorporate contemporary culture, independently of their specific nature (image, sound, written word…) (2) The skills related to media literacy can be summarised in four areas of ability: access, analysis, evaluation and creative production. (3) All of these skills boost aspects of personal development: consciousness, critical thinking and problem-solving abilities. (4) Media literacy is a necessary part of active citizenship and the key to the full development of freedom of expression and the right to information. It is therefore an essential part of participative democracy and intercultural dialogue. As it is concluded from these considerations, the fundamental of media literacy is critical autonomy in relationship to all media. Media literacy consists of three dimensions (Livingstone & Thumim, 2003): - Technical competencies: This means that one has to have access to different sorts of media and the ability to use media as a prerequisite for the other two dimensions. - Critical reception practices: This dimension consists of critical thinking skills. Students will develop an understanding of how media work. Rather than being passive consumers of media, students learn that realities are constructed to reflect ideas or values, to sell a product or to produce excitement. Students also learn how to spot a stereotype and to distinguish facts from opinions. Retrieved from http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference= IP/06/1326&f 36 OFCOM (Office of Communications) Retrieved from http://www.ofcom.org.uk/advice/media_literacy/of_med_lit/ whatis/ 37 “Current trends and approaches to media literacy in Europe”. This study, carried out for the European Commission by the universitat Autonoma de Barcelona (UAB) in the second half of 2007, is aimed at mapping current practices in implementing media literacy in Europe. It covers the 27 EU Member States and the EEA Member States. Retrieved from http://www.eavi.eu/images/stories/reports/executive%20summary.pdf Belgin Tanrıverdi 1379 - Content production: A third aspect of media literacy is the ability to produce and distribute content of media. Students cannot only use media but actively create media messages. Media education and Media literacy has been described and defined in an international context by UNESCO, in an initiative that began in 1982 with the conference in Grunwald and continued with conferences in Toulouse in 1990 and Vienna in 1999. Finally, the fourth, the UNESCO seminar in Seville in 2002 highlighted the need for action through active promotion policies in five areas: 1) Investigation; 2) Training; 3) Cooperation between schools, the media, NGOs, private businesses and public institutions; 4) Consolidation and promotion of the public sphere of society and its relationship with the media38. Therefore, media literacy is considered to be a very important factor for citizenship in today's information society. It is a life-long skill not only for young generations but also for adults and elderly people, parents, teachers, media professionals. Formal media education plays a vital role in the process of media literacy formation although also informal learning areas will help the lifelong learner to become a media literate person. Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 recommends that Member States develop the provision of key competences for all as part of their lifelong learning strategies, including their strategies for achieving universal literacy39. In the Audiovisual Media Services Directive – recital 25a and article 26, it is stated that “Media-literate people will be better able to protect themselves and their families from harmful or offensive material. Therefore development of media literacy in all sections of society should be promoted and monitored." (Media literacy profile, 2007, p.4). The picture shows that there are different practices and different levels of media literacy throughout Europe. It would be, therefore, extremely important to be able to analyse, highlight and spread good practices in the field throughout the EU. This study concentrates on media literacy education in the formal education system in Greece and Turkey, this does not mean, however, that informal learning situations are seen as less relevant. The structures for implementation of media education in schools differ from one country to the next in the different EU member states (both existing and accession states) (Koller et.al., 2005). That’s why it is not possible to mention a standardized curriculum for Media 38 Sevilla SeminarCf. retrieved from http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/files/5680/10346121330Seville_Recommendation s.rtf/Seville+Recom mendations.rtf. 39 AVMSD Non binding working document rev.3. p. 8 retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/avpolicy/docs/reg/modernisation/proposal_2005/avmsd_cons _amend_0307_en.pdf at 1380 Media Literacy Education in Balkan Countries: The Greece and Turkey Case Literacy in European countries. However, considering related literature we can conclude some common principles for a media literacy education compatible with EU objectives. Following you may find some basic principles in media literacy education and the case in Greece and Turkey in the scope of these principles. 1. Media education should be an entitlement, not a luxury. Therefore, comprehensive media education programs should be initiated and supported from pre-school to university level, and in adult education (Kerr, 2004). In primary or secondary education, it should be approached in both a crosscurricular and a subject-specific way integrated across the curriculum, not just in Mother tongue education or Media Studies (Lemmen, 2005; Feilitzen, 2004). In addition to the fact that media literacy is an interdisciplinary subject and therefore is not limited to certain classes or age groups, it is undeniably a key skill and core literacy. In spite of the fact that comprehensive media education programs should be initiated and supported from pre-school to university level, in both countries media education is limited to junior high school. In that perspective, media education is not yet part of the curriculum in Greece and in Turkey. In Greece there is not a discrete subject for media literacy education, in Turkey media literacy education is a one-year elective course in secondary schools. In Greece, both in primary and lower secondary schools some core skills and learning outcomes are stated in The Studies of Environment and in Citizenship Education in primary schools such as, “Students will develop a critical attitude towards mass media” (Environmental studies, Second Grade) and “be able to adopt a critical attitude towards traditional media (television, radio, the press); to come in contact with new information and communication technologies (ICT) (the web, cable television, etc); to consider their effects on human life (Citizenship Education, Fourth Grade). In Turkey, both in primary and secondary schools some core skills and learning outcomes are mentioned in Social Science education and Mother-tongue education. In these courses core skills and learning outcomes are mostly based on being able to use Information technologies effectively. There are also few learning outcomes based on being aware of the media and criticizing media messages. For example “Students will be aware of how his ideas be manipulated through advertisements” (Social Science Education, Third Grade) and “Students will be able to think critically news, information and comments shared through mass media (newspapers, magazines, television etc.)” (Mother-tongue education, Second Grade)40. 40 For this analysis, the curriculum of all courses in the primary and secondary education of both countries were scanned. The National school curriculum of Greece is retrieved from http://www.pi-schools.gr/download/programs/ Belgin Tanrıverdi 1381 In Greek national curriculum, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a course in primary and junior high school which aims to provide pupils with opportunities to develop basic computer literacy as well as critical thinking skills and to enhance their motivation for creative action at a personal and social level. In that course most of the learning outcomes are based on being familiar with computer technology; some of them are based on reflecting critically on the impact of ICT on their own and others’ lives and use of new technologies and being aware of the impact of ICT on science, art, culture, language, the environment, the quality of life. Similarly, Information and Communication Technology is a course in junior high school in Turkish national curriculum which aims to provide pupils with opportunities to develop basic computer literacy skills but not think critically about those skills. 2. Media Literacy Education is to teach not only 'through' but also 'about' the media (Duncan, 2001; Medialit, 2003). Media literacy education should include print, film, television, radio, multimedia, the Internet and digital games. It should adopt a competency/skills based approach focused on doing and not just knowing. In other words, media literacy should include media production (Medialit, 2003). Specialist courses such as Media Studies, Film Studies and Moving Image Arts should be available to all young people who want them (Kerr, 2004). As the content of media literacy in Turkey, the studies for television, radio, press and internet are concerned. Those topics are not competency based approach focused on doing but just knowing. In other words, media literacy education does not include media production but mostly understanding media tools and symbols. Neither a unit nor a single learning outcome about film studies, multimedia and digital games are stated in the national curriculum of Greece and Turkey. In addition, specialist courses such as Media Studies, Film Studies and Moving Image Arts are not available in primary or secondary level but possible at higher education for students who want to be media professionals. 3. Media ‘bashing’ is not media literacy; however media literacy sometimes involves criticizing the media. It does not mean “don't watch;” it means “watch carefully, think critically”. Looking at a media message or experience from just one perspective is not media literacy because media should be examined from multiple positions (Medialit, 2003). In the national curriculum of Greece and Turkey general tendency is to convey the messages about media but not to create media messages. For depps/english/19th.pdf; the National school Curriculum of Turkey is retrieved from http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/ 1382 Media Literacy Education in Balkan Countries: The Greece and Turkey Case example, in Greece, the learning outcome (Studies of Environment, First Grade) “Determine basic media. Investigate their TV-watching habits (time- duration, types and quality of broadcasting – pro-grams of preference)” is not for developing students’ critical thinking skills for media. There are also some learning outcomes based on developing critical thinking skills such as “think critically when using old and new technology media (TV, radio, press, internet, etc)” (Studies of the environment, Fourth Grade) but how it is done is not specified in the curriculum. In Turkey, almost all of the learning outcomes are related to understanding issues about various types of media tools in the courses apart from elective media literacy course. In media literacy course there are some learning outcomes based on developing students’ critical thinking skills such as “Students will recognize the positive sides of the internet as well as negative sides and practice in his own life”, but it is difficult to evaluate if this learning outcome is acquired or not; because to practice something in life is a life-long process and it does not happen right after the course is completed and also it is difficult for teachers to observe that change. 4. Media literacy policy and strategies should apply 3 P’s at national level: Protection, Provision and Participation (Council of Europe, 2006). In other words, media education should not only be approached from a protectionist point of view since there might be problematic media consumption (Duncan, 2001). Media literacy curriculum guidelines should be established (nationally or regionally) by appropriate educational authorities. Besides, media education will be most effective when parents, teachers, media personnel and decision-makers all acknowledge they have a role to play in developing greater critical awareness among listeners, viewers and readers (Duncan, 2001). Topics covered in Media Literacy Education are the principles of (mass) communication, media, family children and television, radio, print media and internet but not digital games, multimedia and the history of media. Most of the learning outcomes are based on making students be aware of negative sides of media and provide students with attitude and knowledge about communication technologies. In other words, media literacy policy applies protection and understanding issues as the main strategy at national level both in Greece and in Turkey. The greater integration of educational and communications systems would undoubtedly be an important step toward more effective education. However, in both countries a national committee decides on the principles for media literacy curriculum. In Greece, for example, media education doesn’t exist for the supervisory school authorities and it isn’t practicable for teachers because of not been supported either any freedoms or equipment (Erjavec, 2002). In Turkey, Media literacy curriculum is determined by Radio Television Supreme Court (RTUK) and National Ministry of Education. One can access Belgin Tanrıverdi 1383 conclusions about public consultation on media literacy in Greece in a report prepared by UNESCO, but there is no report prepared for Turkey or by Turkey on that issue. 5. Media literacy curriculum should take into account 5 C’s or core competences: Comprehension, Critical thinking, Creativity, Cross-cultural communication and Citizenship (Council of Europe, 2006). Media literacy curriculum details should take into account teaching strategies: Textual readings and analysis, Simulations and role playing, Productions and representations. It should be output-oriented, project-oriented, attitudes promoted and values promoted (self-esteem, tolerance, democratic awareness,…). (Duncan, 2001) When media literacy related learning outcomes are analyzed in the national curriculum of Greece, one can state that they are mostly based on comprehension, sometimes critical thinking, and hardly ever creativity such as creating a multimedia but never cross-cultural communication and citizenship. It is almost the same in Turkish curriculum apart from some learning outcomes in media literacy education curriculum which aim at developing creativity such as “to prepare his own newspaper” in elective Media Literacy Curriculum. Although some activities about textual reading and analysis and also simulations and role playing are maintained in the Turkish curriculum, it is difficult to say the curriculum is output-oriented, project-oriented, attitude and values promoted. There are some group discussions and project works which are advised to teachers but it is not based on developing attitude or values in a democratic world. It is generally based on protecting oneself from media’s negative effects. 6. Ideally, evaluation in Media Education means student self-evaluation, both formative and summative. Indeed, Media Education attempts to change the relationship between teacher and students and taught by offering both objects for reflection and dialogue (Harland, 2004; Masterman, 1997). Suitable textbooks, other teaching materials and resources, and lesson plans that are relevant to the country/area must be available. There must be appropriate evaluation instruments which are suitable for the unique quality of media education. When we deal with the evaluation system of media literacy education in Turkey, one can state that traditional assessment tools are not used. In fact, students’ outcomes are not evaluated with a grade, in other words; no pass, no fail at the end of the course. Evaluation of the course is done with portfolios or projects. In that case, one can state that the evaluation system is suitable for the principles of European initiatives about media literacy education. As for materials used in that lesson, it is difficult to say that special instruments are provided for that course or teachers are highly qualified in terms of recognizing 1384 Media Literacy Education in Balkan Countries: The Greece and Turkey Case those materials in media literacy. In Inceoğlu’s work, (2007) teachers didn’t recommend any book other than the course book. They only suggested the official web site of RTUK for children. Since the booklet has been prepared by the European Council, all the links are in English and reflect the international perspective of the council. 7. Media literacy education should be supported by a sustained both initial and in-service teacher training programme (Pungente, n.year; Kerr, 2004). Faculties of education must introduce training on media literacy education, hire staff capable of training future teachers in this area and offer courses in media education. There should also be academic support from tertiary institutions in the writing of curricula and in sustained consultation (Erjavec, 2002). Besides, Boeckmann states (1992), the ultimate objective of the in-service training should not be to transmit specialist information but to fire teachers with enthusiasm for Media Education in order to assist the cross-curricular principle on the road to success. As for teacher training, one cannot mention a special education program for teacher training in both countries. Implementing media education at schools can only be seen as the first step; the qualification of all teachers is crucial to successfully taking up and establishing media education. In some of the EU countries, teachers are offered continuing professional development in the field, but attendance is mostly voluntary and still very much depending on the motivation of the individual teacher (Lemmen, 2005). In Greece, since there is no discrete subject for media literacy education, there is no program for teacher training. In Turkey, although there is an elective course about media literacy education, social science teachers are responsible for that course. Teaching media literacy requires a specific training on subjects like main structures of media, historical backgrounds of media, theories and effects of media and the methods for reading a text in terms of semiotic analyses, rhetoric and other related subjects. It is obvious that the specialists graduated from faculty of communication have this knowledge and instruments to teach media literacy in an efficient way. Therefore letting social science teachers teach media literacy courses will raise the risk factor of a possible unsuccessful project. Social science teachers are taking three-day in service teaching provided by Ministry of Education. It is certain that three-day course is not effective enough for all these qualifications mentioned above. Besides, among all Faculties of Education having social science teaching department, only one university has an elective course on media literacy education in 2007-2008 education term. Therefore, it is difficult to say teachers who are responsible for media literacy course are qualified enough for this lesson. Belgin Tanrıverdi 1385 8. Media literacy education should be assessed and evaluated at all levels (Hobbs&Frost,2003). It is evident that the evaluation of projects for the media literacy context has been neglected in the past. The results of these projects will have to be analysed in depth to gain knowledge that will be helpful for further activities and to make policy planning easier. It will be the task of researchers and experts from different disciplines to develop useful and effective methods and tools that can be applied for the evaluation and the assessment of media literacy projects. Greece has not yet carried out many research studies on media education. There have been no studies carried out in the field of introducing media education into the Greek education system. We should mention Aslanidou's work "The myth of the passive viewer" (2000) on exploring the judgements Greek students make about TV messages. In Turkey, Inceoğlu (2007) made a research about the efficiency of elective media literacy course. According to findings of this research, although both teachers and students believed the necessity of implementation of media literacy course in the Turkish education curriculum, they failed in defining the elements of media and functions of the media. As for assessment of students’ success, both in Greece and in Turkey, there are no agreed criteria or standards for assessing media literacy, and there is an urgent need for larger-scale, longer-term research to establish a body of evidence, on which such criteria could be based. Conclusion and Recommendations Media literacy has not found its way in the curricula of higher, secondary and primary education both in Greece and in Turkey; there are no specialist teachers of this subject, nor are there suitable textbooks for this purpose. For example, the only resource for media literacy is “The Internet Literacy Handbook prepared by the Group of Specialists on Human Rights in the Information Society carried out under the Council of Europe and translated into Turkish and published by RTUK in Turkey. Media literacy resources should be analysed and reorganized from the local perspective. Suitable textbooks, other teaching materials and resources, and lesson plans that are relevant to the country/area must be available. There must be appropriate evaluation instruments which are suitable for the unique quality of media education. Constantly changes occur concerning media, especially new media. To stay relevant, media education must address comprehensively to the new and converging communication technologies, from multimedia to the Internet. As regards media production for children both in Greece and in Turkey, it remains unsatisfactory in both quantitative and qualitative terms and fails to meet the needs of children in the process of their socialization and identity development. Media literacy policy applied protection as the main strategy at 1386 Media Literacy Education in Balkan Countries: The Greece and Turkey Case national level both in Greece and in Turkey. Also, learning outcomes related to media literacy are mostly based on comprehension; they should be designed according to creativity, cross-cultural communication and citizenship. The schools – from the first to the eighth grade – deal with the media only in passing, as part of the subject Turkish Language and Social sciences in Turkey; Studies of Environment in Greece. Such an approach is far from the modern concept of media literacy, which responds in much more complex ways to the commercial thrust of the media and the impact that radio, television, the Internet, and other media may have on the children’s lives, either in the positive or negative sense. Students should not only learn media construction but also the media institutions, political, economic, social and cultural contexts of the media environment, media persuasion and propaganda techniques, to examine different media text and style forms, to develop the skills of analyzing the grammar of media language and to understand the basic characteristics of the essential journalistic genres. The goals of Media Education could better be achieved within a specialist Media Education course, which has its own identity, its own rooms and equipment, its own resources. These are not provided in both countries. Furthermore, the media policy strategy for children, that is, the child as a media consumer and as an object in the media, has not been clearly defined in both countries. For example, in Turkey, the control mechanisms that would force media companies to define policy for children or evaluate the success of media literacy curriculum are inadequate. The Media literacy education should try to realize its aims through two different Media Education models: Media Education as an optional course in primary schools and Media Education as a topic within the integrated primary and secondary school curricula. If it is integrated into the secondary school curriculum as a compulsory part of specific, independent and obligatory courses, it should not be only mother tongue or second language education but also should be Sociology, Psychology and the History of Art, Visual Arts etc. When the Media Education is adopted as an optional course, it is highly dependent upon the existence of pupils who chose this course. In Turkey, for example, when the schools in the central district of Kocaeli (an industrial city close to Istanbul) were consulted for a report about the applications of the media literacy curriculum, it was understood that the course had never been applied in none of those schools because of various reasons. It means that the majority of primary school students get hardly any information about the media literacy. Because of the lack of institutional support, Media Education is mostly dependent on the knowledge of individual teachers themselves. This reduces the possibility of integrating Media Education across the curriculum into the schools. Pre-service and in-service training should be offered to both specialized teachers, who teach Media education courses, and teachers who are integrating Belgin Tanrıverdi 1387 Media Education into other courses. However, in Turkey, social science teachers are responsible for media literacy education. Social science teachers are taking three-day in service teaching provided by Ministry of Education. Besides, among all Faculties of Education having social science teaching department, only one university provides an elective course on media literacy education in 2007-2008 education term. Therefore, it is difficult to say teachers who are responsible for media literacy course is qualified enough for this lesson. In Greece, no adequate criteria have been noted down on a national level, but the Project "Audiovisual Education for Children and Young People10" could be a starting point for an applied qualitative research on the formal education system based on the level of media literacy among youngsters (European Commission Report, 2007). In Turkey, RTUK and Ministry of education started an elective course for media literacy education. Although the curriculum has some drawbacks it could be a starting point for media literacy of students. Shortly, Media literacy education in Greece and in Turkey is not compatible with the necessities and principles of European initiatives about media literacy. For that reason, informal education should support formal education system. In that scope, there are some successful attempts in Greece. The Hellenic Audiovisual Institute is working on defining the best practices and the criteria on implementing media literacy on a national level. The project “School & Cinema” is a private initiative by a Greek non-profit organisation, YOUTHPLAN, for the development of young people's audiovisual communication and expression. SafeNetHome is the Greek awareness node funded by the European Commission’s ‘Safer Internet Action Plan’. Its mission is to promote a safer use of the Internet and of new technologies in Greece, and to awaken the Greek public concerning the Internet and dangers hidden in new technologies, through a multi-channel awareness campaign (European Commission Report, 2007). In Turkey, ILAD (Communication Research Organization), a non-governmental organization, provides seminars about media literacy. Such organizations should be developed both in quantity and quality. References Aslanidou S., (2000). The myth of the passive viewer. Dromeas, Athenes. Retrieved from http://www.mediappro.org/nat_research_gr.htm Boeckmann, K. (1992) “In-service Training for Teachers: Approaches and Experiences”, pp. 84-88. In: C. Bazalgette, E. Bevort in J. Savino (Eds.): New Directions: Media Education Worldwide. London: British Film Institute. 1388 Media Literacy Education in Balkan Countries: The Greece and Turkey Case Council of Europe Pan European Forum of human rights in information society: Empowering children and young people. General Report. (2006). Retrieved from http://www.coe.int/t/transversalprojects/children%5C Source%5Creports%5Cyerevan_en.pdf Duncan, Barry (2001): A Media Literacy Menu: Ingredients for Successful Media Studies, retrieved from http://interact.uoregon.edu/medialit/mlr/readings/articles/duncan.html Erjavec, K. (2002). The Media and Computer Literacy Project in Europe: The Case of Slovenia, Medij. İstraž. (god. 8, br. 2) (63-84). Feilitzen, C. Von. (2004). Young people, soap operas and reality TV; Yearbook. UNESCO-sponsored programmes and publications Harland, J. (2004). Media education:identifying and evaluating learnin outcomes. Media education in Europe’ conference. Belfast. National Foundation for Educational Research, UK. Hobbs, R. & Frost, R. (2003). Measuring the acquisition of media-literacy skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 38 (3), 330-355. Kerr, A. (2004). ‘A Wider Literacy. The Case for Moving Image Media Education in Northern Ireland’. NIFTC Education Policy Working Group. NIFTC /BFI. İnceoğlu, Y. (2007). "Introduction of Media Literacy Course in Turkey's Curriculum", UNESCO/EU Media Literacy Conference, Paris, 21-22 June 2007. Retrieved from http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/ IMG/pdf/YaseminInceoglu.pdf Lemmen, R. (2005). Media Education at European Schools – Let’s move together. Retrieved from www.mediaed.org.uk/posted_documents/ MediaEdinSchools.htm Livingstone, S.& Thumim, N. (2003): Assessing the Media Literacy of UK Adults. A Review of the Academic Literature. Retrieved from http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/bsc/pdfs/research/ litass.pdf Koller, M., Haider,A., Dall, E., (2005). Case Studies of Conditions and Success Criteria in Masterman, L. (1997) “A rationale for Media Education”, pp. 15-67. In: R. Kubey (ed.): Media literacy in the Information age. London: Transaction Publishers. Belgin Tanrıverdi 1389 Medialit Kit: Tecaher’s/Leader’s Orientation Guide. (2003). Center for Media Literacy. Retrieved from http://www.medialit.org/pdf/ mlk_orientationguide.pdf Media Literacy Education, ECML: Scientific papers of media skills and competence conference. Retrieved from http://ecml.pc.unicatt.it/ download/results/Case%20Studies_en.pdf Media Literacy profile: Europe. (2007). Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/ avpolicy/media_literacy/docs/studies/country/europe.pdf Pungente, John (n.year): Criteria for A Successful Media Education Program, retrieved from http://www.medialit.org/reading_room/article118.html Mother Tongue Effect in Teaching English as a Second Language Emine Eda Ercan, Selcuk University – Turkey Abstract Teaching English as a second language presents some difficulties. The mother tongue of the students can be both an aid and a handicap for us, the teachers. Students tend to turn to their mother tongues when they get stuck in English. If the languages are from the same or similar language family, then usually students get help from their mother tongues and it helps, too. German and English are in the same language family and some uses are the same. For example, “Wir helfen ihm” and “We help him” are structured in the same way. However, if the languages are far from each other then, it’s a total disaster for the students. Turkish students tend to use “We help to him” in a wrong way to give the same meaning, as the structures are totally different. Teachers generally use the term “it smells Turkish” just for this kind of situations. Of course there are ways to get rid of this problem. In this paper I’ll try to handle these. Key words: Mother tongue interference, mother tongue, language teaching problems. Mother tongue is the first dominant language of a person. In “Foreign Language and Mother Tongue” by Kecskes&Papp (2000:1) it’s stated that: According to Skutnabb-Kangas and Phillipson (1989) mother tongue can mean the following: 1. The language learned from the mother. 2. The first language (L1) learned, irrespective of “from whom.” 3. The stronger language at any time of life. 4. The mother tongue of the area or country (e.g., Byelorussian in Byelorussia ). 5. The language most used by a person. 6. The language to which a person has the more positive attitude and affection. 1392 Mother Tongue Effect in Teaching English as a Second Language On the other hand, a foreign language is the language learned or acquired after the mother tongue or first language. The relation between the mother tongue and the foreign language is very important in teaching. This relation can be both an aid and a handicap in learning and teaching a second language. Students tend to have similar problems or errors in learning a language. The reason for this is that they have the same mother tongues. If we were to wander into a classroom where pupils were learning a foreign language and if we listened to them speaking that language or observed their attempts to write it, we should notice before long that the same mistakes of pronunciation, spelling, grammar and vocabulary tended to recur in the language of different individuals. (Wilkins,1972:190) As Wilkins explained above, we can see the similar errors of the students easily even at first glance. Because the students have the inclination of trying to turn to their mother tongues when they have a problem in the second language. They are lucky if the languages and their rules are similar- it works. But what if the languages are different and it doesn’t work? Errors We need to begin with the errors. Errors reflect gaps in a learner’s knowledge; they occur because the learner does not know what is correct. (Ellis,2001: 17) Some linguists make a distinction between the term “mistake” which is considered to be unsystematic and related with performance and the term “error” which is related with competence and considered to be systematic unlike mistakes. (Çakır, 2003) Traditionally, “errors” were regarded negatively and had to be eradicated. The more recent acceptance of such errors in learners’ language is based on a fundamental shift in perspective from the more traditional view of how second languages are acquired. (Yule, 1996:194) The modern view supports the idea that these errors can help the teachers diagnose the problems. Studying the errors made by the students, the teacher can easily understand the problem areas and focus on easily. Also the students can make self corrections when they see their errors. Errors can be studied in two parts: a) Intralingual and developmental errors: Intralingual errors are related with the structure of the language. On the other hand, developmental errors are caused by the faulty comprehension of the language. Students make these kinds of errors as they confuse the grammatical rules or as they are not experienced enough. Çakır (2003) defines these errors as: “Intralingual and developmental errors occur as the results of the limited experience of the learners who try to set up 1393 Emine Eda Ercan hypothesis about the target language they are learning.” He adds some error examples: Some learn fast, some learn slow. Subconsciously learning occurs…… The students read silent. They are freedom to speak. b) Interlanguage errors: The Interlanguage errors are caused by the effect of mother tongue. The learners tend to use their mother tongue knowledge when they get stuck in the foreign language. The learners transfer their mother tongue structures to their new learning. Here, mother tongue interference occurs. If the languages are similar, they get help from their mother tongue and the problem is solved. However, if the languages are different the students make errors and it causes more problems. Transfer The procedure of Mother Tongue Interference can be schematized as follows: (Sarıgül,1999:125) Interference Positive In the mother tongue Negative In the target language When learning a foreign language an individual already knows his mothertongue, and it is this which he attempts to transfer. The transfer may prove to be justified because the structure of the two languages is similar- in that case we get “positive transfer” or “facilitation” – or it may prove unjustified because the structures of the two languages are different – in that case we get “negative transfer” or “interference”. (Wilkins,1972:199) 1394 Mother Tongue Effect in Teaching English as a Second Language Positive Transfer Many believe that the study of one language (e.g.,Latin) will make easier the study of a closely related language (e.g., French). Similarly, people often believe that some languages are “easy” in comparison with others. For example, many English speaking university students see European languages such as French as less difficult than Oriental languages such as Chinese. Since the similarities between English and French seem to be relatively great, French is often considered “easy”. (Odlin,1989:1) From the behaviorist perspective, when first language habits are helpful to acquiring second language habits, this is positive transfer. (Littlewood,1988:17) Similarities between two languages cause positive transfer. As the structures and linguistic forms of the two languages are similar, positive transfer does not cause any problems and helps more. In other words, the L1 of the learner facilitates the L2 learning. Also it reduces teaching time as the rules or the structures are similar. There can be similarities of vocabulary items between the languages as seen below: (in Turkish and English) English Television Radio Dialogue Monitor Park Club Turkish televizyon radyo diyalog monitor park kulüp In addition to the vocabulary items, we can see the similarities in some of the sentence structures, as well. (in English and Turkish) Ben bir doktorum. Hava çok güzel. Köprü tam şuradadır. I am a doctor. The weather is very beautiful. The bridge is right there. As these kinds of errors do not cause any problems and even help the teachers and the learners as well, “positive transfer” can be regarded as “helpers”. There is nothing to be done for “positive transfer”. The main concern here, perhaps the problem to be solved is “negative transfer”. Negative Transfer Negative transfer occurs when the two languages (L1 and L2) differ. The differences cause errors in the production of the learners. 1395 Emine Eda Ercan …..the learner uses what he already knows about language, in order to make sense of new experience…the learner uses his previous mother-tongue experience as a means of organizing the second language data. (Littlewood,1988:25) The beginning stages of learning a second language are characterized by a good deal of interlingual transfer from the native language, or, interference. In these early stages, before the system of the second language is familiar, the native language is the only linguistic system in previous experience upon which the learner can draw. (Brown,1994:213) So, in the early stages of learning, students try to use their mother tongue experiences when they get stuck in the foreign language. However; as they get more experienced in time, the number and frequency of these kinds of errors drop radically. There are some examples of “false cognates” below that are the same or similar in forms in English and Turkish but that have different meanings. English College Can Bay Apartment Toy Salt Turkish kolej can bay apartman toy salt There are some examples of errors below caused by L1 interference, negative transfer: Turkish English Senden nefret ediyorum. I hate from you. O, Ahmet’le evli. She is married with Ahmet. Çocuklar bahçede oynuyor. The childrens are playing in the garden. More examples of the students’ errors can be: ' When you finish your speaking with the phone, hang it up. ' Watching football matches from TV is a passive entertainment. ' They use the language with a little error. ' All house work is made by robots. ' Students learn bestly. ' ………….. will be learned by this way. …………errors occur because of the learners’ mother tongue interference. They have made these mistakes as they have tried to use some language items as they are used in their mother tongue without thinking of the 1396 Mother Tongue Effect in Teaching English as a Second Language unique nature of the target language……Obviously, they think in Turkish and attempt to create English sentences on the basis of Turkish grammar. (Çakır :2003) Some Solutions As mentioned above, the main concern here for us- the teachers- is the “negative transfer” or “interference”. To handle and solve the problem “contrastive analysis” is commonly used. Contrastive analysis is comparing and contrasting the two languages and finding out the differences and the similar points. In this way, little attention can be directed to the similar points and the different parts can be handled thoroughly and focused on. The teaching materials and the teaching plan can be prepared better with contrastive analysis. In summary, the function of contrastive analysis is to predict the likely errors of a given group of learners and thereby to provide the linguistic input to language teaching materials. (Wilkins,1972:198) When the teachers know about the errors and the reasons behind them, they would be more helpful to the students in the learning process. So, contrastive analysis is the first step in diagnosing the errors. Knowing the errors and the reasons is the key to solution. In the classroom, contrastive analysis can be very useful for the students as they get to understand and know about the mother tongue and the target language. In this way, they have the chance of lessening the errors and making false hypotheses. Teachers should apply the contrastive analysis to the classes and raise the awareness of the students because as the students get more experienced about the target language, they understand the unique nature of each language. So, exposure to the target language as much as possible will be one of the best cures to the problem. Current research shows that L1 influence is a subtle and evolving aspect of L2 development. Learners do not simply transfer all patterns from the L1 to the L2, and there are changes over time, as learners come to know more about the L2 and thus to recognize similarities between L1 and L2 that were not evident in earlier stages of L2 acquisition. (Schmitt,2002:124-125) From this point of view, we- as teachers- should try to lessen the errors and make them get more experienced in the target language. In conclusion; errors are sources of information about the students and they are inevitable in the classroom environment. So our duty here should be making use of the errors and trying to get as much profit as possible. Emine Eda Ercan 1397 References Brown, H. Douglas. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. United States of America: Prentice Hall Regents Çakir, Abdülkadir. (2003). “Some Common Errors Made By Turkish Students”. Konya: Selçuk Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Volume: 15. Ellis, Rod. (2001). Second Language Acquisition. New York: Oxford University Press. Kecskes, Istvan & PAPP, Tünde. (2000). Foreign Language and Mother Tongue.United States of America: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Littlewood,William T. (1988). Foreign and Second Language Learning. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press. Odlin,Terence. (1989). Language Transfer. United States of America: Cambridge University Press. Sarigül,Ece. (1999). A study on the role of semantics, in vocabulary and language teaching. Ph.D.Thesis.Gazi University:Ankara Schmitt,Norbert.(2002). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. United States of America: Oxford University Press. Yule, George. (1996). The Study of Language. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press. Wilkins, D.A. (1972). Linguistics in Language Teaching. Great Britain: Chaucer Press. Motivation for Teaching Career. Motivation for Didactical Career – Condition for Durable Society Development in Multicultural Diversity Ion-Ovidiu Pânişoară, Georgeta Pânişoară, University of Bucharest – Romania Abstract The article analyses the motivation for didactical career, starting from theoretical aproaches and finalysing with practical conclusions obtained researching motivation factors in didactical career and modern teacher’s profile in interior of a globalised society, marked by accelerated changes. Thus, the research is designed to determine the similarities and diversity of the motives for choosing a profession. So, there were selected motives based on many motivational theories and the subjects had their choises about their specific constelation of determinants. There were between subjects three groups – those without jobs (students who only project their motivation), people who worked for 3-15 years and people who worked only in educational public field. There are differentiations between teachers and another categories of people who work regarding motives for doing that career they have. The reseach has incorporated subjects from two categories – 680 practicant teachers and 360 students who prepare themselves for becoming teachers. There is a dominant aspect resulted from research, there is a specific profile of person who chooses to become professor, intrinsicly motivatated and it is pretty similar in all counties. Key words: Teacher motivational, didactical career, career management Introduction. Theoretical framework The issue of motivation for teaching career is one of present interests for the contemporary society; however the studies carried out in the field are far from being enough, while existing in fact an increased need for finding new arguments to make contact with the accelerated changes of contemporary world. The analyses could be much more profound if we take into consideration the students’ motivation for the school activity: this is why, although, in general, 1400 Motivation for Teaching Career. Motivation for Didactical Career such a perspective, for motivating the student for learning, might be – in certain limits – directed towards the motivation for the teaching career. However, significant differences might undermine the whole process. Let’s take a look at the nature of the phenomenon we are dealing with. As such, at the definitions level, there might be helpful a set of tools adopted from the specialised literature: “Motivation is what energises, directs and supports behaviour” (Steers and Porter apud Saal, Knight, 1988, p. 256). “Motivation refers to the interior factors of an individual which stimulate, maintain and channel behaviour in relation to a goal” (Huffman, Vernoy, Williams and Vernoy, 1991, p. 381) – according to this definition: “Motivation refers to the dynamics of behaviour, the process of initiating, supporting and directing the organism’s activities (Goldenson apud Coon, 1983). The three definitions underline: ⇒ Dynamics: motivation (1) initiates/energises/stimulates; (2) directs/channels; and (3) supports/maintains a behaviour, everything being a dynamic, fluent process; ⇒ Motivation “is being made” by means of forces that lie within us; ⇒ The behaviour generated by motivation is directed toward needs satisfaction (which generically were named “goal”) Types of Motivations Because of the close relationship between the motivation for teaching career and the learning motivation of students, we will continue to see the two phenomena in relation throughout our study. For instance, in the traditional school, the accent is placed especially on the encouragement and development of a certain type of motivation - the motivation for achieving. Those persons motivated by this type of need are trying to achieve the excellence standards; however things, far from that, are much more sensitive, being able to identifying more types of motivation, each of them being responsible for a certain impact on the teaching activity: − the motivation for power (by means of which individuals feel the need to dominate the others, to subdue to their control all those in their reach). The need for power can be seen also as “the need to win acknowledgement, influence or control over other persons or groups (Morris, 1990, p. 428). Many times, teachers have such a motivation – often not admitted at conscious level – because within the space and authority of the teaching function such motivation for power can be easily satisfied; Ion-Ovidiu Pânişoară, Georgeta Pânişoară 1401 − the need for affiliation represents the need for maintaining social relationships with other persons. As such, Stanley Schachter (apud Baron, Kerr, 2003) noticed that after a period of prolonged isolation, individuals frequently show an inexplicable anxiety. According to Crouse and Mehrabian (apud Carlson, 1993), individuals who posses a strong need for affiliation tend to try more than others to meet different persons and to establish friendly relationships with them. − the need to know (curiosity) finds its fulfilment by means of the exploring activity (curiosity seems to be an intrinsic need which can be included in the category of intrinsic motives). It is a type of motivation used in the school space, however not enough activated (although thinking about the dynamics of the lessons through the lens of the need to know, the students’ involvement should be more profound and long time lasting). − the need for approval represents in its turn one constant of our life. R. Harre (apud Hayes, Orrel, 2003) asserts that one of the main reasons for the social behaviour is the social respect. More precisely, nobody would like to be negatively perceived by others (especially by the persons who are important for her/him). We presented above just some of the most significant types of motivation. However, their list is far from being over. Motivation for Teaching Career – Comparative Study In the recent years the problem of motivation for the teaching career became a compelling condition not only for the development of the educational system as such, but we can assert – without being afraid of any exaggeration – that even the social progress in a positive direction can be understood from the point of view of this area of research. More precisely, as Atkinson (2000) notices in An Investigation into the Relationship Between Teacher Motivation and Pupil Motivation (author S. Atkinson, Educational Psychology, Mar. 2000 Vol. 20, No 1; p. 45) the conclusion according to which there is a positive relationship between the students’ motivation and the teachers’ motivation is statistically significant. This means, motivated teachers lead to motivated students. It is obvious that the reverse of this affirmation is troubling: teachers who are not motivated might easily lead to the appearance of the lack of motivation in the students they are working with. First of all we should take a look at what we are dealing with. Are teachers a distinctive social-professional category? Are there some core underlying elements both at national and international level? A set of studies seem to admit that we are right, to confirm such an assertion: for example, R. Zimmerman 1402 Motivation for Teaching Career. Motivation for Didactical Career (1968) describes the structure of teachers’ motivation in the following terms: (1) high educational expectations; (2) economical motivation and financial expectations; (3) need for high ethical standards; (4) need for communicating facts and ideas to other persons at interpersonal level. In the UNESCO study, named Teacher Motivation, Compensation and Working Conditions, International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris, 2006, the following reasons are satisfactory for teachers as elements of balance and support of the progress in career: (1) dedication for the profession and the activity with children; (2) the success gained in the classroom – the professional rewards the teacher receives by observing the students’ achievements; (3) the status gained within the community because she/he is practicing a well respected profession; (4) the training gained through pre-service and in-service programmes; (5) favourable work conditions necessary for practicing their profession (which includes both the availability of the teaching resources and the support offered by the school management, parents’ involvement, etc.) and (6) the possibility of promotion and progress in career. In 2001, the questionnaire Status of the American Public School Teacher developed under the care of the National Education Association asked the target group to answer by selecting from a list with 3 choices such important elements for the decision to primarily choose the teaching career as well as three elements decisive for their present decision to stay within this profession. The three major values identified were in order: (1) Desire to work with young persons (73% from those who answered to the questionnaire chose this motive); (2) Value and significance of education within society (44%); and (3) Interest for a certain field (36%). A closely similar perspective is offered in Determinants of teaching as a career (author Beng Huat See, University of New York, paper presented at British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Manchester, 2004); the results of this study underline the fact that the main attractive factors for the teaching career are: (1) the opportunity given by this profession to share with others the accumulated knowledge; (2) the satisfaction offered by the teaching profession; (3) length of vacation; (4) chance to pursue her/his interest in a field of study; (5) security offered by such a job. In Note d’information 01-46, edited by Minstere Education Nationale from France, Direction de la programmation et du developpment (DPD), according to the authors Esquieu, N. and Perier, P. the list of the motives for choosing a teaching career comprises: (1) the work autonomy offered by the teaching career; (2) free time, vacation; (3) security of job; (4) the equilibrium guaranteed between the professional and the private life; (5) desire to work with children; (6) wish to teach; (7) the high social consideration for this job; (8) the exercise of an educational function; (9) salary; (10) the perspective offered by the career Ion-Ovidiu Pânişoară, Georgeta Pânişoară 1403 progress; (11) the exercise of a job of public service. This perspective is confirmed further on by other studies. We can notice that the reasons join in a quite high sphere of synonymy. Experimental Process As subjects we used two experimental groups: 360 students who prepare themself for didactical career and 680 teachers with a lot of practical experience in clases. They had to answer to a set of questions and to choose the most important indicator for which they choose to stay within the didactical career and the most important factor for which they would leave the profession. This dual table was necessary in order to obtain a balanced image of the whole system of motivation, a holistic perspective that comprises the advantages and disadvantages. The distribution of the results was the following one: The motives for which they would remain within the teaching profession: 1. Contact with children/young which would be extremely positive for teachers; 2. Passion for the field of study they teach; 3. Help they can offer for the students’ development; 4. Social responsibility for building up the future of the country; 5. Free time (for example vacations) and flexibility of schedule. The motives for which they would leave the teaching profession: 1. Inadequate salary (financial motivation); 2. Buirocratizaton of the teacher’s activities (too many “papers” that they are supposed to fill in); 3. Lack of adequate appreciation from society; 4. Students’ and parents’ lack of motivation for education; 5. Frequent changes that occur within the educational system. Another analysis presents the comparative point of view to which we referred before. Is the teacher career a specific determinant, completely different from other careers? From the points of view presented above, it seems that things convey in this direction. In order to have a more accurate image we refer to the study developed by Don Elizur in 1989, a cross-cultural study based on a questionnaire with a configuration that covers the main theories of motivation (Maslow, Herzberg, McClelland, Hackman and Oldham, etc.), comprising in its final form a number of items that proposed answers that had to be selected on a scale from “very non-important” to “very important” (apud Corbett, 1994). The motivating factors have been placed in a hierarchy as it follows (1- the most important factor, 10 – the less important factor): 1404 Motivation for Teaching Career. Motivation for Didactical Career USA UK Germany Netherlands Taiwan Korea Hungary China Interesting work 1 2 1 1 2 3 6 5 Achievements 2 6 7 2 1 1 2 1 Promotion 3 7 10 6 4 7 10 6 Personal recognition (self-esteem) 4 5 9 9 3 9 7 3 Use of skills 5 4 6 6 8 4 5 2 Autonomy in work 6 9 5 4 7 10 9 4 Job safety 7 8 4 8 5 2 8 10 Good manager (attentive and right) 8 10 3 7 6 6 1 7 Good income 9 3 8 10 10 8 4 9 Good colleagues (agreeable) 10 1 2 3 9 5 3 8 Teachers Interesting work 1 Achievements 4 Promotion 9 Personal recognition (self-esteem) 5 Use of skills 2 Autonomy in work 3 Job safety 6 Good manager (attentive and right) 7 Good income 10 Good colleagues (agreeable) 8 Within the mentioned answers we could not remark the placement on the last position of the “good income”, fact that made us – during the discussions with the participating teachers in the investigation – wonder about the motivation of this perspective. The answer one teacher offered us is symptomatic for our analysis and confirms the Zimmerman words from the beginning of this paper: “If we wanted substantial income, we would have not become teachers” – from which derives the intrinsic motivation and assuming of vocation – elements of Ion-Ovidiu Pânişoară, Georgeta Pânişoară 1405 good augury for the development of a national process for motivation for the teaching career. References Apter, M. J., Carter, S. (2002) Mentoring and motivational versatility: An exploration of reversal theory, Career Development International, vol. 7, iss. 5, pp. 292-295, Bradford Bishay, B. (1996), Teacher Motivation and Job Satisfaction: A Study Employing the Experience Sampling Method, Journal of Undergraduate Sciences, Vol. 3, nr. 3,pp. 147-155, Harvard University Czubaj, C. A. (1996). Maintaining Teacher Motivation. Education, 116/3, 372379 European Commission (2006), Quality assurance in teacher education in Europe Gorman Ph. (2004), Motivation and emotion, Routledge, Taylor & Frencis Group, NY Herzberg, Frederick and et al. (1993). The Motivation to Work. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers Lawrence, Hardy. (1999). Why teachers Leave? American School Board Journal, 186/7, 12-17 Luce, J., (1998) Career Ladders: Modifying Teachers Work to Sustain Motivation, in Education Chulla Vista: vol. 119, Iss. I, pp. 15-19 Maslow, A. H., (1943) A theory of human motivation, Psychological Review, 50, pp. 370-396 Panisoara, G., Panisoara I.-O. (2005), Motivarea eficienta, Polirom, Iasi Pihie, Z., Elias H., (2004), Improving the teaching profession though understanding educators self motivation in Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, vol. 19, Iss. ½, pp. 25-35), Shardlow, S., M., Nixon, S., Rogers, J., (2002), The motivation to practice teacher: decisions relating to involvement in practice learning provision, Learning in Health and Social Care, vol. 1, pp. 67-74 Sinclair C., Dowson M., McInerney D. M., (2006), Motivation to Teach: Psychometric Perspectives Across the First Semester of Teacher 1406 Motivation for Teaching Career. Motivation for Didactical Career Education in Teacher College Record, Vol. 108, No. 6, pp. 1132-1154, Columbia University Troman, G., Woods, P. (2000), Careers under stress: teacher adaptations at a time of intensive reform, Journal of Educational Change, Vol. 1 pp.25375 UNESCO – Enabling teachers to enable learners, World Education Forum, Dakar, Senegal, 2000 UNESCO (2006) Guidebook for Planning Education in Emergencies and Reconstruction, section 4 Teachers and Learners – cap. 16 Teacher Motivation, Compensation and Working Condition, International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris www.hsc.harvard.edu/~jus/0303/bishay.pdf Practical Precepts to Improve the Performance of Students in Speaking Hasan Çakır, Selcuk University – Turkey Abstract Teaching speaking is teaching several skills to a desired and satisfactory extent. As a result of effective lesson and practice, students should acquire and improve their ability to express what they want. Moreover, their communicative performance should be at such a certain level that the listener should understand their message without difficulty. In order to get such a favorable result, speaking lessons should be conducive to the ability of the students and provide for the students both the necessary knowledge and practice to speak fluently. It is imperative that students be prepared and taught with the instruction appropriate to the nature of speaking courses. For this purpose, special knowledge specific to the speech skill should be systematically selected and practiced in a class of students essentially not more than fifteen. In addition, the individual knowledge of the students should be canalized and appropriately transferred to their speech competence. Based on the understanding the nature of speaking skill, the instructional procedures to include pertinent practice during lesson will achieve higher level of learning and fluent performance in the speaking skill of the student. Key words: Language teaching, teaching English, speaking skills, speech competence. Introduction In this article, several practical precepts are explained about improving the speaking performance of the students. It will prove useful in the instruction of speaking to utilize the knowledge about ideolectical expressions, discourse feature or language functions, speech mode, figurative language, presentation formats, general subjects, mechanical drills, discourse markers, collocational phrases and semantically related words. Discourse markers are indispensable and functional for complete language competence. With discourse markers, the 1408 Practical Precepts to improve the Performance of Students in Speaking student organizes his thoughts while speaking. Collocation phrases are the source of certain mistakes and errors. After learning collocations, the student will speak accurately. In the study of a new grammatical rule, drills will help him to control new structures and remember them easily. Discourse features of the speech are creative for the student. He can simplify his long sentence and omit redundant words evident from the context. Moreover, he should learn certain words specific to his style of individual speaking. In this way, he will be more motivated to participate in speaking course. He should also be encouraged to use figurative language. He is intelligent and capable of using it effectively. In speaking, the problem is not always directly related with language competence. Students simply do not know how to present and develop a topic. The knowledge on presenting a subject will enhance their communicative competence. It will be surprising to see students confidently conversing on a subject if they have an adequate practice on general subjects. Along with grammatical knowledge, vocabulary is an expressive resource to use a foreign language proficiently. Special words with close semantic relations and specifications will facilitate some argumentative and abstract subjects for the students to explain. Equally important is the distribution of speaking per week and the number of students in a classroom. If the speaking class is more than fifteen and the frequency of lesson is less than ten hours a week, the energy and the activities of a competent teacher will not get a reasonable result. Unless supported with appropriate number of class, the student is not able to acquire intended communicative competence. In spite of current instructive problems, the following principles may prove productive in teaching speaking. Idiolectical Expressions In linguistic description, linguists make an understandable distinction between dialect and idiolect. Dialect refers to the way of speech natural to a region, class, etc. However, idiolect is used to designate the speech style of an individual. The student may naturally use many favorite words and pet phrases to express his own message. When organizing a piece of information in written and spoken medium, such characteristic dominate the individual language use of the student and he consequently tends to use the personal diction and language specific to himself. It will be helpful for a student to learn consciously and automatically use these individually-used patterns of language when needed in communication. For instance, it will be very practical for a Turkish student who often uses in his mother tongue, “Mesela, yani” to learn at least one word equal to that word from the foreign language. It will be much better for him to learn several similar structures to use for a change in his natural speech: In other words, In a sense, That is, That is to say, Say, I mean, Namely, Hasan Çakır 1409 Viz, i.e. Specifically, For example, For instance, Notably, To illustrate, At this point, the teacher should advice his class to determine such habitual patterns of language and to learn several equivalent structures, words and phrases and use them when their idiosyncratic language predilections dictate themselves. In addition, it is also motivating to learn and use some social formulas with their functions. These social formulas may be used for permission, apology, congratulation, interjection, consolation, confirmation, agreement, opposition, refutation, instruction, and direction, offering, ordering, accepting, refusing an offer, and asking for information. Paulston and Bruder (1976:60) suggest that “the students should very early on be taught phrases for talking themselves out of trouble; phrases like ‘how do you say this in English?’ ‘Is that right?’ what is the word for the thing that…? are very useful to know.” At the early period of language learning, mother tongue and foreign language seem to be two different sets, in which one-to-one relation obtains between their elements. To my way of thinking, at least for a certain period of time, language learning seems to realize such relations between the elements of different language sets. If the student learns these mutually related patterns in advance, he will have no difficulty expressing his message clearly and fluently because there will be no missing elements in the set of mother tongue and that of foreign language. Having learned such social formulas and idiosyncratic expressions, the student will be motivated to enter into and sustain a meaningful communication and be prepared for acquiring fluency in foreign language teaching. Combination of Skills Speaking is a complex and combined skill. The student uses his mind and logic intensively when explaining a topic. It is inevitably require a developed mental faculty to set up sound propositions, make good decisions and give true verdicts and make correct inferences. Nonetheless, it is equally necessary to express the outcome of such mental processes through language. In order to externalize the result of those processes, the student should know a great number of special words. Words and vocabulary are indispensable in speaking. Gough (2001:3) points to the importance of vocabulary as follows: “vocabulary is important because it is words which carry the content of what we want to say. Grammar joints groups of words together, but most of the meaning is in the words. The more words you know, the more you will be able to communicate.” The student can say a lot with words, especially with discriminating ones. Both in the production and reception of the message, he unavoidably needs synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms following the cognitive process successfully realized through comparison, contrast, classification and analogy, etc. Seidl and Mcmordie (1978:7) illustrate this point when they say: “Take the idiom to give 1410 Practical Precepts to improve the Performance of Students in Speaking someone the cold shoulder. The idiom means ‘to treat someone in a cold and unfriendly way.’ We may ask if it is possible to say to give someone the ‘cool’ or ‘warm’ shoulder or to give someone a cold shoulder or to give a cold shoulder ‘to’ someone. None of these are possible, but how can the foreign learner know this?” Simply to illustrate by a symbolic situation, if a student knows ‘white’ but does not ‘black’, he cannot draw a comparison between two objects with different colors; even if he did, he would not be able to express the color distinction. If he knows ‘rose’ but not ‘plant’, he will certainly fail to state his thoughts about plants and vegetation. Frustrated to express his views about distinct objects, he will not be confident and therefore conversational unless effectively equipped with some sort of semantic source to state the hyponymic, synonymic and antonymic relations. Furthermore, lexicon words are essential to better speaking skill. For instance, students are supposed to know such a family of the words and the distinctions between them to speak about the state administration: President, prime minister, minister, deputy minister, presidential election, general election, local election, by-election, seat, polling station, public opinion pool, government, interim government, coalition government, local government, cabinet, opposition leader, legislation, bill, cession, constitution, parliamentary system, democracy, regime, vote, veto, constitutional court, political conjuncture, constituency, electorate, voters, free and fair election, land sliding victory, propagation, rally, caucus, assembly, to be in office, to put into force, to hand in/tender one’s resignation, to pass a bill unanimously, to adjust the prices, to freeze the wages, to reach a consensus, executive committee, political party, economy, high inflation, party policy, a military coup d’ état, a coup attempt, a failed coup, to impose/declare marital law, and to be deposed in a violent coup. Figurative Language In order to develop speaking skills, the teacher should encourage all the students to use figurative language. The point I am trying to make is that students usually use exact words to the situation although a simple figurative language will suffice effectively. It is so challenging a problem to find precise words to every situation to a prolific professional native writer, still less a foreign language student, who needs a long time to build up such a large thesaurus of exacting words. Nonetheless, he will express his meanings clearly through metaphors and tropes. Furthermore, the shortest and most effective way is to use metaphoric language. So as to explain a thematic situation, the students need many words in conversation. The longer he explains a relevant topic, the more words he needs to use. As he speaks longer, the more demanding conversation seems and he will fail to meet such a verbal challenge. Frequently Hasan Çakır 1411 encouraged to speak figuratively, the student simply elucidates a serious situation with fewer words. Figures demand intelligence from the student, not a vast language material. Speaking figuratively is an effective solution to some problems of fluency and an efficient method to develop the speaking skills of foreign language students. Presentation Formats Different topics require different presentation formats. Instruction, process, biography, story, history, anecdote, résumé, summary, report, history possess diverse production format. Although successful and competent in terms of other language skills, some students have difficulty in explaining something through speaking. In this situation, it is not the language competence that the student needs, but an organizational ability to explain, to select, and shape the knowledge relevant to explain a topic. Language learning therefore seems difficult both to the student and the teacher. Language teaching includes developing other cognitive skills and communicative competence of the student. Non-fluency is not always due to poor language learning. The real difficulty sometimes arises from other lacking mental capacities. A remarkable ability in speaking presupposes a combination of other individual talents. A multiple and composite skill, speaking is also based on other individual characteristics. Students should be proficient in the configuration and clustering of information not to confound when required to explain a subject. General Topics The student must have first something significant to say in a foreign language. Some students neither possess some background information about a subject, nor relevant vocabulary, let elone professional jargon and register to express it. They ought to advance their intellectual power. Seligson (2004:17) states that “students often underestimates their oral ability, even as beginners… we need put them in situations where they have to communicate so they find out how much they can say.” The problem may be resolved with instructive practice on certain informative subjects: The characteristics of a good language learner or teacher. The use of learning a foreign language, particularly English, etc. Advantage/ disadvantage of learning other foreign languages. Family, Marriage, divorce, children, examination, housing and accommodation, dormitory life, education, alcoholism, traffic accidents, crime and punishment, films and cinema, music, sport, books, forms of transport, holidays and festivities, free time, choosing an occupation, dressing style and fashion, fruit and vegetables, cooking, shopping, poverty and prosperity, equality, liberty, justice and injustice, nepotism, racisms, nationalism, 1412 Practical Precepts to improve the Performance of Students in Speaking democracy, natural disasters, animal world, plantation, deforestation, mass media, television, computers, activities and interest, individual hobbies and psychological phobias, feelings and emotions, science, history, religions, employment or unemployment, human rights, psychological harassment, social mobbing, terrorism, war and peace, friendship, social solidarity, obesity and fitness, health, etc. It is not sufficient to prepare certain universal subjects to discuss. The teacher should provide some topics interesting, motivating, conflicting, compromising and cooperating enough. When the class practices such skillbuilding subjects, perhaps at least thirty, the students will hopefully gain selfconfidence in speaking. The self-reliance is a central concept for someone to realize something. In this way, the student will also develop other cognitive abilities along with his speaking skill. With enough practice in advance, he feels motivated and confident of his ability to speak. Such a practice on general topics and self-confidence will consequently contribute to the natural fluency of language learner and considerably improve his speaking skills. Collocations It is productive and useful for the student to learn collocations. Simpson (1996:78) defines collocation as follows: “significant chunk of the meaning of a word will be derived from the syntagmatic relationships into which it conventionally enters. This principle of lexical combination is known as collocations.” Certainly language learning is comprised of receptive and productive skills. To my way of thinking, speaking is both productive and receptive skills being a mutual interaction between the speaker and the hearer. Teaching collocation is related with the productive aspect of language teaching. A student may and really does understand more than he speaks. He is able to understand collocations and cognate words since it is quite easy to infer the meaning of a collocational phrase. Simpson (1996:79) states that “The principle of collocation help explain why words occur in the sequence they do. Given that the syntagmatic axis sets up strong structural constraints, collocates are often easily predicted.” However, collocation poses a serious problem when he wants to say his message through them. Hall (2006:1) point to this problem as follows: “At its simplest it is a predictable association of words that naturally fall together in certain context such as ‘cup of tea’ or ‘bread and butter’. However, on a more deeply erratic and idiomatic level, it demands that one word is used rather than another in particular contexts and this idiomaticity often defies any obvious logic and thus very difficult for non-native speakers to predict.” For a Turkish student, the collocation ‘to establish a foundation or an institution’ does not cause any problem in understanding the phrase, but ‘to establish a relation or connection’ does in speaking and writing. Hasan Çakır 1413 Handshake (n) a. Adj. Firm, hearty/ limp: She was not impressed by his limp handshake. b. Verb. Have: He had a firm handshake. Or Give sb: Fawcett gave me a hearty handshake. c. Prep. with a: They sealed the agreement with a handshake. Or From: a handshake from the chairman. (Oxford University, 2000:363) By learning these kinds of collocations, the student will have a rich resource of language to make up meaningful sentences to express his point. Admittedly, the more resource is available for the student, the more fluent he will be to express his meanings accurately. Mechanical Drills Although some teachers consider drills as a mechanical practice, drills are surprisingly conducive to speaking skill. It will be useful to the fluency of the student to practice new pattern of language gradually through mechanical, meaningful and communicative drills. The important point in drill practice is to employ them in certain sequence. Doff (1988:73) notes that “it is obviously more useful to give students practice in which they have to think, in which they understand what they are saying and in which they express meaning. This kind of practice is called meaningful practice.” There are more than ten types of mechanical drills developed by audio-lingual approach. The use of drills and pattern practice is a distinctive feature of the Audio-lingual Method. Brooks (1964: 156) includes the following types: 1. Repetition. The student repeats an utterance aloud as soon as he has heard it. He does this without looking at a printed text. The utterance must be brief enough to be retained by the ear. Sound is as important as form and order. This is the seventh month. -This is the seventh month. After a student has repeated an utterance, he may repeat it again and add a few words, then repeat that whole utterance and add more words. I used to know him. - I used to know him. I used to know him years ago. – I used to know him years ago when we were in school.... (Brooks 1964:143) Drills should be applied whenever a new grammatical rule or a pattern has been presented to the class. When these patterns are satisfactorily instructed and adequately practiced, the student will possibly encounter no problem to use them in his life. With the imitation of the same structure, the student is encouraged to set up meaningful sentences. Later he grows enthusiastic about 1414 Practical Precepts to improve the Performance of Students in Speaking the communicative sentences about himself, environment and other human beings. Stage by stage, the student will practise language with his pair and group and eventually come to use the already-practiced patterns. As Richards and Rodgers (1986:53) state, dialogs and drills form the basis of audiolingual classroom practices. Though audio-visual approach may nowadays seem offdate, its contribution to language teaching is sill practical and handy in language teaching. Speech Mode While speaking, the students, I have often observed in my class, struggle to make up sentences like those of a book. Almost few native speakers of English or man of letters speak in perfect sentences. Bookish delivery is appropriate to books, exactly to written medium of language. The participants in the written communication do not see each other. The reader is not able to ask any question to the writer of the book when he does not understand a given point. The nature of written communication involves relatively longer and grammatically perfect sentences. The literary work is therefore verbatim and redundant in style. On the other hand, speaking depends specifically on spontaneity and spoken medium. As the addresser and the addressee are in the same situation, spoken medium has many advantages over written medium, such as eye contact, style of delivery, tone of voice, gesture and mimics. Accompanied with immediate physical context, intonation expresses much more than words. So speaking tends to be naturally as simple as recoverable from the obvious context. In contrast with the grammar of written language, that of speech has simpler and plainer structures. Not surprisingly, speakers use economical and elliptical patterns of words and phrases rather than complex and compound ones. Instead of subordination, coordination of sentences is often observed in spoken language as is more natural and much easier. Usually loaded with many words, the pedantic sentences are usually longer and harder to control in speaking. For example, Although he worked very hard last year, he could not pass the class. He worked very hard last year. But he could not pass the class. The second simplistic style in coordination is more appropriate to speaking and more efficient than subordination. It is mentally much easier to handle and control short sentences in coordination than those in subordination because using more than seven words is scientifically difficult to control in an utterance. So the teacher should advise the class to speak in shorter sentences in coordination instead of bookish style. As a result, the student will enjoy a simpler system to speak and they come to use longer sentences by the time. Hasan Çakır 1415 Language Functions My other observation is that students try to make up more complete sentences than usual in ordinary speech. The observable feature of daily conversation is that there are many pause fillers, repeated words, tolerable elliptical elements and ungrammatical but acceptable sentences. The teacher should recommend the students to use language as economically as usual in discourse style. One sentence may convey many meanings in natural communication. To illustrate with a simple sentences, ‘It is raining now.’ An ordinary learner of English can make up such a sentence without difficulty. With the change of the context, such a declarative sentence performs many functions than its literal meaning denotes. It is raining now. Means: To your son playing in the garden: ‘Come in or else you get wet.’ To your boss: ‘I will do it when the rain stops.’ To your guest: ‘Why don’t you stay a bit longer? You can leave when it stops raining.’ After a pessimistic weather forecast on TV: ‘Our dams will fill up. So we will have no energy or electric problem this year. Looking through the window: ‘The farmers will be happy with their crops!’ Or ‘How nice it is! It is getting cooler after the hot sun shine, etc.’ These examples illustrate the different functions of the everyday language in natural operation. In line with discourse functions, practicing language is more creative and more communicative. New approaches appreciate the value of language functions. Brown (2000:254) asserts that “With the increasing communicative emphasis on the discourse level language in classrooms, we saw that approaches that emphasized only the formal aspects of learner language overlooked important discourse functions.” Though not correct or complete, elliptical sentences are acceptable in natural communication. When recoverable from the immediate context, many parts of the speech in discourse may be omitted from the sentence. For example, according to Biber and et al, ellipses of subjects take place when the subject of a declarative clause is omitted. A: Are your parents well off?B: Depends what you call well off really. (BrE) <It is omitted.> A: What is concubine? B: Don’t know, get a dictionary. (BrE) <I is omitted.> To simplify the structures as in the natural use of language, the student should learn when to omit subject, objects, main verbs, adjectives, and adverbs 1416 Practical Precepts to improve the Performance of Students in Speaking from the sentences. If the teacher urges them to practise to leave out some parts of speech, they will speak better with fewer vocabulary and structures. In this way, they will learn not only how to speak fluently but also how to express much more with the same statement. Discourse Markers Communication is a process of message transmission from the speaker to the listener. Accuracy is of pivotal importance to the production and reception of the message. For a piece of information to be understood correctly by the receiver, it should be encoded with a certain discourse markers by the speaker. By taking these markers into consideration, the listener decodes and understands the message at least literally. At the same time discourse markers help the speaker organize the content of the message and facilitate its delivery in the stream of ideas. 1. Listing and Ordering: First, Second Firstly, Secondly, First of all, In the first place, Last of all, To begin with, to start with, For one thing, for a start, finally, last, lastly, next, then. 2. Addition: a. Equative: Similarly, Correspondingly, Equally, Likewise, By the same token, In the same way, In a similar way b. Reinforcing Again, Also, Moreover, Further, Furthermore, In addition, Alternatively, above all, Besides, Too, What is more 3. Contrastive: a. Reformulatory Better, worse, Rather, More Accurately, In other words, To be more precise, More precisely, alias, alternatively, What is worse, etc. b. Antithetic On the one hand, On the other hand, In opposition, In Contrast, by contrast, In comparison, By comparison, Conversely, On the contrary, instead, etc. If he learns discourse markers, the student will normally have extra time to organize the content of his message. Equipped with many discourse markers, he will have the command of many words to list, summarize, contrast, compare, illustrate, exemplify, classify and to sequence temporally the content of his Hasan Çakır 1417 message. In short, he will learn how to start, develop, and conclude his explanation during an actual conversation. Conclusion In this article, certain precepts are suggested to develop the speech competence of the student. The teacher’s task is to apply them in his lessons and expose students to the target language with different techniques. These suggested principles may be enriched with various techniques involving dramatization, role play, problem-solving activities, dialogues and conversations. Social formulas lend itself to situational dialogues and dramatization. Discourse markers should be studied in the summary activities of books, films, and short stories. Argumentative texts abound with special vocabulary. The teacher may highlight these particular words with any technique and encourage students to practice them in the classroom. Discussion topics are possible to increase with socially important and actual events. Presentational formats may be determined through the analysis of numerous text or discourse types. The examination of language in discourses, situational dialogues, dramatic works yield an effective and evident feature of the pragmatics of natural speech. After the recognition of these pertinent language properties, controlled and fluency activities may be progressively intensified. Newly-learned grammatical forms and structures should be respectively reinforced with mechanical, meaningful and communicative drills. The simple sentence structures with adverbs and prepositions, precisely coordination should be favored over subordination and complex sentences for fluency. Some sheets are to be designed to teach collocations in certain correct context. Speech competence results only from wide exposure to the target language and systematic language practice. References Biber, Douglas and others. 1999. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education. Longman: third impression. 2000. Brooks, N. 1964. Language and Language Learning: Theory and Practice. New York: Harcourt Brace. Second Edition. Brown, H. Douglas. 2000. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. White Plains, NY: Pearson Education. Fourth Edition. Doff, Adrian. 1988. Teach English. A training Course for Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1418 Practical Precepts to improve the Performance of Students in Speaking Freeman-Larsen, Diane. 1986. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gough, Chris. 2001. English Vocabulary Organiser. Teaching Publications. London: Language Hall, B.T. 2006. TESOL Language-Training- How Words Work: 3. Collocations. Available on: (15.04.2006) http://www.suite101.com/article/cfm/tesol/23603 Oxford University. Database Project. (Maker). 2002. Oxford Collocations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Paulston, C. Bratt and M. Newton Bruder. 1976. Teaching English as a Second Language: Techniques and Procedures. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Richards, Jack C. and Theodore S. Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. A Description and Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sixth Printing. 1996. Seidl, Jennifer and W. McMordie. 1978. English Idioms and How to use them. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Fourth Edition. 1978. Seligson, Paul. 1997. Helping Students to Speak. London: Richmond Publishing. Simpson, Paul. 1996. Language through Literature: An Introduction. London: Routledge. Second Chance Schools in Greece Revisited Eleni Hodolidou, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki – Greece Abstract The theories of Basil Bernstein on classification and framing, as well as on visible and invisible Pedagogy provide a suitable framework for the approach and understanding of Second Chance Schools (SCSs) in Greece. Now that the experimental period of the schools is almost over and SCSs are to be found almost in every prefecture all over Greece it seems challenging to examine the way that schools operate and are organised. The paper attempts to read further the European project of SCSs as ‘text’ through certain discourses produced by and for it. Furthermore, SCSs are compared to the reference schools, exactly the ones that massively produce dropouts every year. Key words: Second Chance Schools, Greece, Basil Bernstein, Visible Pedagogy, Invisible Pedagogy) The theories of Basil Bernstein on classification and framing, as well as on visible and invisible pedagogy provide a suitable framework for the approach and understanding of Second Chance Schools (SCSs) in Greece. Now that the experimental period of the schools is almost over and SCSs are to be found almost in every prefecture all over Greece it seems challenging to examine the way that schools operate and are organised. The paper attempts to read further the European project of SCSs as ‘text’ through certain discourses produced by and for it. Furthermore, SCSs are compared to the reference schools41, exactly 41 I prefer the descriptive term reference school from the evaluative term formal school because it is this school that the students of SCSs did not manage to finish, it is this school they were excluded from for social reasons. In Greece, however, the term ‘formal’ is preferred and used excessively, in my opinion for all wrong reasons: firstly, because I do not believe that Greek teachers can move into informal types of education very quickly. Secondly, because a term used so excessively becomes derogatory and it implies that SCSs are de facto better than the reference school, which is our objective and not our starting 1420 Second Chance Schools in Greece Revisited the ones that massively produce dropouts every year. Having examined thoroughly SCSs against Bernstein’s theory on classification and framing (Hodolidou 2003) in this paper we will focus on visible and invisible pedagogy, two other options of Bernstein’s theory. Let us provide the analysis framework, common to our previous paper. “The differences between the reference school and SCSs are important. Boundaries in SCSs are clearly more fragile than in the reference school, which leads to the creation of new subject positions (for teachers and students), and a variety of choices between learning theories and teaching practices. The different organization of knowledge through collection curricula creates a demand for a different form of socialization relevant to the knowledge created by the new codes. The emergence of new skills and new learning strategies through the institution of SCSs creates the possibility of equal education. Nevertheless, the differences are not always positive and do not work in favour of SCSs. We have seen that integrated curriculum codes in SCSs in order to work; they set some conditions not always easy to meet (cohesion among teachers, monitoring system, clear integrated idea, and finally the creation of multiple evaluation criteria). However, moving the boundaries means creating new subject positions and it is a good idea to fix these new subject positions by loosening even more the existing boundaries” (Hodolidou op.cit). Basil Bernstein’s sociological theory –among other things– connects pedagogic discourse and practices in such a way that can help us understand better this new institution of SCSs. Bernstein’s concept of visible and invisible pedagogy is useful in the analysis of school practices and especially, of the SCSs’ reality. Code, according to Bernstein, is the culturally defined idiom, where class regulated power relations and social control principles are written. These principles regulate, that is select and connect, the appropriate meanings, forms in which the meanings are realized, along with the context in which they are expressed. Codes are, thus, principles that regulate communication and our point; we must keep in mind that whether underrated or not, it is this ‘formal’ school we all refer to in order to express a different opinion. Thirdly because I do not believe that the reference school (or formal school) is of no value. This type of school helped lower classes in Europe (through upper social mobility) to climb the social ladder during the ’60s (in Greece this took place a little later) and it is the only established public, compulsory school that we have right now. I think we should show some more respect! Eleni Hodolidou 1421 practices in school (what and how it can be made known) and, as regulative principles, they are accepted silently by the subjects and regulate their behaviour and consciousness. However, because they are class defined regulation principles and symbolic power mechanisms, they are the ones that position the subjects unequally within the social relations. In this paper I refer to SCSs as codes by examining the curricula and the subjects taught42. By examining, therefore, SCSs as codes and dividing the degree of power into their components (discourses, curriculum, teaching) we mainly outline the changing and shifting of the boundaries from Secondary Education (henceforth reference school) to SCSs. This shifting of the boundaries in SCSs changes the field of cultural production while it gives the possibility to modify productive relations. Bernstein says that: “all education is intrinsically a moral activity which articulates the dominant ideology(ies) of dominant group(s)” (Bernstein 1990: 66). We can argue that SCSs operate within the framework of recontextualization and re-positioning of discourse, since the changes sought to be achieved in relation to the way the reference school works (flexible curriculum, teachers willing to work in that school, alternative forms of teaching, flexible evaluation) move ‘texts’ and school practices from their primary context of discourse production (from the field where theory is developed) to a secondary context where discourse is reproduced, in this case the field of Adult Education which, however, is also part of the Secondary Education (op. cit.: 13-62). As Bernstein claims “the selection, creation, production and changing of texts is the means whereby the positioning of subjects is revealed, reproduced and changed” (op. cit.: 17). A key component in SCSs is its socially excluded adult students, who along with the teachers is what this paper is trying to study. More specifically, it tries to study the subject in the context of SCSs, his formation, his position and the change of his position.43 SCSs are trying to change the ‘message’ (the specific curriculum) and in their effort, they change the ‘voice’ of the teaching context (the conditions of teaching a lesson). All the people who are involved in the SCSs (teachers, scientists, the scientific committee and the monitoring committee) seek to make the transition from the unthinkable to the place yet to be thought (op. cit.: 31, 205), by producing and re-contextualizing 42 I refer to the discourse produced about the lessons in the teachers’ meetings, the in-service training sessions, the reports made after the training sessions. This indirect knowledge I have about SCSs should be checked and discussed. However, SCSs as a totality is made up by all people involved, each one with his or her own point of view, identity, subjectivity. 43 On the issue of subjectivity, vide Henriques, J. et al. (1984), Gunther Kress 1995 and Solomon, Joseph (1994). 1422 Second Chance Schools in Greece Revisited pedagogic discourse which creates imagined subjects (op. cit.: 184). This is perhaps the most important and most interesting element of the educational system on the whole, and of SCSs in particular, namely its relative autonomy, the possibility to change the pedagogic ‘voice’ of the ‘message’. In the case of SCSs, this European project in an effort to eliminate functional illiteracy and social exclusion, modifies to an extent the current pedagogic context of Secondary Education (op. cit.: 34). That is the reason why this paper uses Bernstein’s theory as a tool. In his theory about visible and invisible Pedagogy44 Bernstein talks about different modalities of pedagogic practice, i.e. conservative and progressive ones. Bernstein assumes that there are practices depended upon the market place for its orientation and legitimation and practices independed on the market place, claiming for itself an orientation and legitimation derived from the assumed autonomy of knowledge. This is actually a difference between different elitist ideologies based on class hierarchy of the market and on the hierarchy of knowledge and its class supports. A pedagogic practice can be understood both as a relay of culture distinguishing between what is relayed and how it is relayed. The inner logic of pedagogic relation is a set of rules which are prior to the content to be relayed. The pedagogic relation consists of transmitters and acquirers. The essential logic of any pedagogic relation consists of relationship between three rules: the hierarchical rule (regulative) [who is the transmitter and who is the acquirer], the sequencing rules (instructional/discursive) [the pacing of the knowledge to the acquirer] and the criterial rules [the criteria that the acquirer takes over and applies to his practices]. These rules generate modalities of every pedagogic practice. Hierarchical, Sequencing and Criterial rules can be explicit or implicit. It is not obvious whether this modality is crucial as to whether these practices are progressive or not. Bernstein also talks about types of pedagogic practice and makes a distinction between visible and invisible pedagogies (VP & IP). In visible pedagogy the emphasis lies on performance: the acquirer knows what is expected from him, the emphasis is put on the external product. In invisible pedagogy the emphasis lies upon the procedures internal to the acquirer, upon the procedures/competences that all acquirers bring to the pedagogic context and upon acquisition-competence while visible pedagogies put the emphasis on transmission and performance. When related to progressive or conservative practices VP and IP can actually be relate to both. Both VP and IP can distribute different forms of consciousness according to the social class origin of the 44 The next paragraphs present Bernstein’s theory many times using his words verbatim. For the sake of an easy reading we do not place references after every sentence. Vide Bernstein 1990, chapter 2. Eleni Hodolidou 1423 acquirers. Student’s consciousness is differentially and individiously regulated according to their social class of origin and their family’s official pedagogic practice. VP and IP construct different concepts of the child’s development in time which may or may not be consonant with the concept of development held by the school. Let us now place SCSs within the lines of our theory. Studying the texts produced by SCSs one could easily place the schools within the framework of progressive pedagogic practices, i.e. child centered practices, at least in theory. Although the similar schools and their practices in Europe are depended upon the market place for their orientation and legitimation, SCSs in Greece are independed on the market place, claiming for themselves an orientation and legitimation derived from the assumed autonomy of knowledge. This is due to their curricula which are theoretical and subject based. Very little time indeed is spent outside school and when so it is for visits to museums and exhibitions mainly and not for bringing its students into the work world and its agencies. So, in greek SCSs that which is relayed is relayed in a progressive way. We will see shortly what is the content of what is relayed. The hierarchical rules (who is the transmitter and who is the acquirer) are sometimes blurred due to the way of teaching, the time spent together between students and teachers outside class. The sequencing rules (pacing) is not always clear to be defined and perceived by the students, since there are no books and no student is able to know what comes afterwards. “Children who can meet the requirements of the sequencing rules will eventually have access to the principles of their own discourse. These children are more likely to be middle class…” (op. cit.: 75). Pacing is very crucial to the theory and Bernstein sees it is as “regulating the economy of the transmission becoming thus the meeting point of the material, discursive and social base of the transmission”. So what is at stake is the access to the principles of the discourse in a similar way to having access to the keys that open a room desired by all. Criterial rules are somehow vague. So it seems that all three rules (hierarchical, sequencing and criterial) are more or less implicit within SCSs in Greece. If generally speaking the following is true: “It is not obvious whether this modality is crucial as to whether these practices are progressive or not”, then it is more than obvious that this is the case in our example. How progressive can it be to provide these second class students an implied pedagogy which matches with the needs and competences of middle class students in reference schools? Is it possible that what is thought of as progressive within one context could not and should not be seen as progressive in another one? My personal answer to that serious question is definitely yes and I have tested that not only in the field of SCSs. Let us have an example: in SCSs hierarchical rules are implicit, something which is not welcomed by all students for obvious 1424 Second Chance Schools in Greece Revisited reasons: it is very positive for a change that the teachers of the above schools are somehow different but when it comes to evaluation it is very clear who does what. When it comes to sequencing rules it is more relaxing for the SCSs student to know that he or she can do things in one’s own pace but which pace is the expected so that one finishes what has to be done? As to criterial rules it is very difficult for the students not to have implicit criteria for their work and the SCSs had to set those criteria in an explicit way in the field of assessment. Let us refer now to visible and invisible pedagogies (VP & IP). Again, by looking at the texts and published good practices of the SCSs we can place them within the framework of invisible pedagogy where the emphasis lies upon the procedures internal to the acquirer, upon the procedures /competences that all acquirers bring to the pedagogic context and upon acquisition-competence. To provide such a practice for these students (most of them failures of the reference schools, working up to the time they go to school) is not seen as progressive. Invisible pedagogy can and actually is progressive when the child comes from a middle class educated family and when school is a project to be analysed, worked and enjoyed by the whole family. So here IP is actually related to conservative pedagogy. IP here is a bad choice on part of the students: it distributes forms of consciousness due to the certain social class origin of the acquirers which is not in accordance with the texts that SCSs produce. Students are geared to knowledge without being able to make informed decisions let alone to programme it. The strong pacing rule of the academic curriculum of the school does not privilege everyday narrative. Thus students from the lower or working classes are doubly disadvantaged. The way that SCSs have dealt with that is the weakening of the pace. Bernstein says that “to weaken the pacing rule would require a change in the allocation of cultural capital and economic capital of the school”… “this change will require a change in the training of teachers and an increase of the economic capital, because the transmission of the sane information will now cost more (op. cit.: 78). This is what was actually done during the experimental period of SCSs (repeated regularly in-service training of teachers, different curriculum, schools monitored by an academic who visited the school more than once per week, teachers meetings on pedadogical themes every week, a full-time careers guidance and a psychologist for every school) and of course cannot longer be so. So the distinction nowadays that the experimental period is over is actually who is privileged by an IP which is implied and in theory provided as progressive. Eleni Hodolidou 1425 References Bernstein, Basil (1990). “Social Classes and Pedagogic Practice”, in The Structuring of Pedagogical Discourse, Vol. IV Class, codes and control. London: RKP, , 63-93. Hodolidou, Εleni (2003). “‘Reading’ Second Chance Schools within the theory of Basil Bernstein”, International Journal of Learning, 10, 2003 Edited by Mary Kalantzis & Bill Cope http://LearningConference.PublisherSite.com/ Henriques, J. et al. (1995). Changing the subject. London: Methuen, 1984. Kress, Gunther. Writing the future: English and the making of a culture of innovation. NATE, 1995. Solomon, Joseph (1994). “Educational action and social regulation of subjects: knowledge, discipline and the field of the school”, in Joseph Solomon & Gerasimos Kouzelis eds. Discipline and knowledg: Topika a΄. Athens, 1994 (in Greek) Social and Cultural Issues in Parent Education Çare Sertelin Mercan, İstanbul University – Turkey Abstract Although parenting is the most ancient role of human beings, nowadays parent education programs are widely spread. Academic institutions, local governments, non-governmental organizations and various associations arrange parent education programs. Parent education programs promotes participants knowledge about parenting, improve their communication skills, relationships with their children, and families. Most common themes observed within these educational programs are: effective communication, helping children learn to make choices and decisions, punishment and reward, time management, helping children with homework, school success, parent-teacher relationships, working mothers, and father participation. However, social and cultural issues are mostly underestimated within standard parent education programs. This study aims to highlight the importance of social and cultural issues in parent education programs, since culture influences the life expectations, parents have for their children and parenting styles. Parents want to transmit their values to their children. But some values are not always seen as appropriate when the child changes social environments and also in same culture in the long run. For Western cultures independency of the individual is valued but for Eastern cultures being dependant to the family is valued. Having a job, marriage, children, wealthy, responsibilities to the family of origin and relatives, and knowing the appropriate traditional legends can be an issue of valuing. As a result, parent education programs have to inform parents about the effects and consequences of cultural issues on child rearing. Key words: Culture, parenting, parent education Introduction When overlooked the history of parent education dates until ancient Greek, but of course in the meaning of parent schools as used today it’s seen in United States in the 19th century. Historians have traced the existence of parent selfhelp organizations to the early 1800s. However in 1890s, American women get 1428 Social and Cultural Issues in Parent Education together in large numbers in “mothers’ study” or “child study” groups to discuss common parental concerns (Schlosman, 1983). Schlosman (1983:8) defines parent education as “all formal efforts by public or private agencies to upgrade the attitudes and skills which parents bring to childrearing”. Societies which want to support families about child rearing and want to improve parents’ communication and problem solving skills arrange parent education programs via various organizations as academic institutions, local governments, nongovernmental organizations, schools and private companies. In these programs parents are informed about child development stressing developmental stages and the important developmental aspect for each stage. There are many important topics like tips for effective communication with children, helping children learn to make choices and decisions, punishment and reward, helping children with homework, school success, parent-teacher relationships, working mothers, and father participation. Some programs are held for parents whose children have specific needs as disabled or gifted children. Besides these important and useful topics there is also an important subject which is not held as a contemporary issue. Cultural and cross-cultural studies reveal that the existing parent education models and much of our knowledge on parenting is based on Western human development framework. Given the divergence in cultural values between east and the west and the recognition of culture as a constituent element of social structure (Lichtman, 1990), parent education programs need to be developed with cultural sensitivity (quoted by Lam, 2005). Aim of this study is to highlight the social and cultural effects on parenting. Parenting and Culture Culture is the way of living that transmitted to next generations via language, customs, traditions, values and attitudes (McGoldrick, 1993). Culture gives a shape to behaviors, goals, thoughts and feelings of its members. Ogbu (1981) defines culture the way of living shared by the individuals of a population. Culture shows the social, economic and psychological adaptation of people. And culture influences the values, expectations, attitudes and behaviors of parents. Cultural values are one of the most important determinants of child rearing attitudes of parents (Yavuzer, 2001). Parents’ attitudes to their children are affected by the socio-cultural environment and their socio-cultural background. Different social structures need different individual characteristics. Because of this parents try to bring up their children who will adapt easily to their culture. Also parents’ values and beliefs regarding to child rearing is affected by the culture (Bornstein, Tal & Tamis-LeMonda, 1991) Çare Sertelin Mercan 1429 Traditional studies on developmental psychology define child’s socialization process with the norms of middle-class industrialized societies. As the middleclass industrialized societies build the subject of almost all the studies child’s needs are assessed and early intervention programs are prepared according to these norms (LeVine, 1988). But for the last 20-30 years it’s accepted that a mother’s competency can be evaluated only within her own cultural norms (Pomerleau, Malcuit & Sabatier, 1991). Parents transmit the value and child rearing practices of their culture to next generations. Socio-cultural environment is built by the families’ beliefs, values and rituals and then this socio-cultural environment shapes the attitudes, behaviors and parenting practices. Whiting & Whiting (1975) studied the relationship between child rearing styles socio-economic system and family structure. In agricultural societies gender roles are clear and differ strictly. Collaboration has crucial importance for life continuance. Economics of complex societies is based on occupational specialization. Class system and competition are the most evident characteristics. Family structure can be classed nuclear family or large family based on the relations with relatives, and the independence of the family. Individuals living in different cultural environments should differ from each other for their personality characteristics this is so understandable and also it’s important for continuity of life. Hoffman (1988) asked mothers (in his cross-cultural study conducted in nine different countries) about the meaning of having a child. Although answers were close to each other (expectation of economic help, emotional relations, enjoying together, social status of being a parent) the importance and the preferential term varied among cultures. This is about how the life conditions and socio-cultural structure meet the needs of the individuals. In the rural areas with poor welfare status, and if the social governmental or bureaucratic institutions do not respond the needs of the individuals, people try to get meet these needs by their children, so the meaning of having a child becomes one of the most important subject due to the cultural differences. “The culture or ethnic group child grows up in as a macro-system has indirect effects on child-rearing attitudes and consequent parenting styles... For example, West in his study mentioned that in the United States adults are expected to read, write, compute, and be economically self-sufficient. American children thus expected to achieve in school, are given an allowance to learn the value of money, and are pressured to get a job at least when they finish their school. In the Fiji islands, adults are expected to farm, fish, and be able to make economic exchanges with relatives on the bigger islands” (Berns, 1993:141). Harwood, Schoelmerich, Ventura-Cook, Schulze and Wilson (1996), studied on a large sample (socio-economic status was under control) mothers from 1430 Social and Cultural Issues in Parent Education Anglo-saxson families expect their children to be high in self regard and high in self-control although mothers from Porto-Ricon families expect their children to have high performance in adapting rules and be more mild and moderate. As societies have different life conditions the required skills to overcome in that society will differ in many ways. So the characteristics that a person should have will vary from one culture to another. From a cultural-ecological point of view the child rearing practices of a culture can not be seen as useless, indecent on unnecessary behaviors. Child rearing practices are consequences of individuals’ cultural accumulation. Child rearing practices can be seen as a part of cultural system build by collective experiences which meet the environmental demands and pass on next generations. Parents are not independent while performing their parenting practices. Through having the comprehension of raising individuals, who are equipped with the knowledge, techniques and skills necessary on social, economic, political and cultural aspects; they exhibit the behavioral patterns which are determined by the society they live in. Berns (1993) summarizes Kohn’s theory as follow: parents’ occupations and life style steer them towards some specific child rearing values. Especially occupations of parents from high socio-economic class require being creative, taking responsibilities, being independent and leading others. So these parents expect similar performances from their children and as a consequence of this they try to rear up children high in self-esteem, creative in thinking and so on. On the other side parents who work in the fields that requires less intellectual performances, less independence, no initiative taking expect their children to obey the authority; and they rear their children with rigid rules. Obedience and following the rules are important for parents from working class. “Kohn (1977) demonstrated that middle-class parents were more likely than lower-class parents to want their children to be considerate of others, intellectually curious, responsible, and self-controlled, lower-class parents were more likely to want their children to have good manners, to do well in school, and to be obedient. Thus, the middle-class parent tends to emphasize selfdirection for the child, whereas the lower-class parent tends to emphasize conformity. Kohn also demonstrated that fathers whose jobs entail selfdirection, who work with ideas instead of things, who are not closely supervised, and who face complexity on the job value self-direction in their children, while those whose works requires them to conform to close supervision and highly structured work situation are more likely to want their children to conform” (quoted by Berns, 1993: 147). Based on Kohn’s model we can say that one’s needs and demands determine child rearing values. Social and economic structure affects the values and the values affect the objectives about child rearing, so parents’ attitudes are affected by the socio-cultural status (quoted by Samerof & Seifer, 1983). Çare Sertelin Mercan 1431 Studies conducted in Turkey on parenting styles (İmamoğlu, 1987, 1991; Kağıtçıbaşı, 1970) show that, contrary to the western cultures or United States Turkish parents’ attitudes to their children are less democratic so that, awaiting unconditional obedience, overprotection, discipline with strict rules (quoted by Recepov, 2000). Kağıtçıbaşı summarizes the child characteristics that parents expect from their children in traditional cultures as “closeness to parents”, fidelity, loyalty. When people perceive their children as an assurance for old age days they want their children to be obedient in childhood (Kağıtçıbaşı, 1991). Kağıtçıbaşı (1991) quoted from the study of Berry, Bacon and Child, that in agricultural societies, children are expected to be dependant, obedient, and compatible. The children who are raised with these values should protect the family and cultural values more successfully. As the expected personal characteristics are “loyalty” and “obedience” than parents’ authoritarian attitudes towards their children could be understandable. Oktay (2000) quoted from Ulküer Savaş that rural Turkish regions, as seen in economic affairs birth, child rearing topics are also held as societal issues more than individual ones. Child rearing is determined by traditional judgments. Not only the family but also the society is also responsible of the child’s nurture and education. Such an approach directly influences the relation between child, and parents, and also influences the parenting styles. Discussion Culture and socio-economic status are important determinant of parents’ child rearing attitudes. Social groups provide continuity by transmitting their values to the next generations. These values differ from one culture to another because of different life conditions. Child rearing attitudes of a culture is the most important way of this transmission. The educators have to be culturally sensitive while putting into practice a parent education program. If the Western studies are the only theoretical background for a parent education program in a non western society it may not be able to meet the needs of parents. So parent education programs must be prepared in the awareness of cultural characteristics. Besides another very important subject is the globalization of the world. In today’s world the technological development in the field of communication is incredible. All over the world international companies are widespread. In some areas the borders between countries are not exist any more. People are going different countries for education or training programs or working. Until now in this study the importance of cultural values is highlighted, but in today’s world an individual have to easily perform adaptive behavior to different cultures. Understanding other cultures, other people, getting on well with different cultures and different people are the important characteristics of a person living in the 21st century. So this is also an important 1432 Social and Cultural Issues in Parent Education issue for parent education programs to help parents how to rear a compatible child in today’s world. References Berns, M. R. (1993). Child, Family And Community, Florida: Harcourt Brace Collage Publishers. Bornstein, M. H., Tal, J., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (1991). “Parenting In CrossCultural Perspective: The United States, France, And Japan”, Cultural Approaches To Parenting (Ed. Marc H. Bornstein), New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Hoffman, L. W. (1988). “Cross-Cultural Differences In Childrearing Goals”, Parental Behavior In Diverse Societies (Ed. Robert A. LeVine, Patrice M. Miller, Mary Maxwell West), San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Kağıtçıbaşı, Ç. (1991) İnsan Aile Kültür, İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 2. Baskı Christensen, O. R. & Thomas, C. R. (1980). “Dreikurs and the Search for Equality”, Handbook on Parent Education (Ed. Marvin J. Fine), New York, Academic Press. Lam, C. M., (2005). “In search of the meaning of parent education in the HongKong chinese context”, in Contemporary issues in parenting (ed. Melissa J. Kane), Nova Publishers. LeVine, R. A. (1988). “Human Parental Care: Universal Goals, Cultural Strategies, Individual Behavior”, Parental Behavior In Diverse Societies (Ed. Robert A. LeVine, Patrice M. Miller, Mary Maxwell West), San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. McGoldrick, M. (1993). “Ethnicity, Cultural Diversity, and Normality”, Normal Family Processes (Ed. Froma Walsh), New York: The Guilford Press. Ogbu, U. J. (1981). “Origins of Human Competence : A Cultural – Ecological Perspective”, Child Development, 52, 413-429. Oktay, A. (2000). “Türk Kültüründe Kendini İfade Biçimleri ve İmkanları Yönünden Çocuk”, Ev Kültür, 3. Pomerleau, A., Malcuit, G., & Sabatier, C. (1991). “Child-Rearing Practices And Parental Beliefs In Three Cultural Groups Of Montreal: Quebecois, Vietnamese, Haitian”, Cultural Approaches To Parenting (Ed. Marc H. Bornstein), New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Çare Sertelin Mercan 1433 Recepov, R. (2000). Algılanan Ana-Baba Davranışları: Kültürlerarası Bir Karşılaştırma, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, Ankara. Sameroff, A., Seifer, & Ronald. (1983). “Familial Risk And Child Competence”, Child Development, 54, 1254-1268. Schlossman, S. L. (1983). “The formative era in american parent education: overview and interpretation” in Parent Education And Public Policy (eds. Ron Haskins and Diane Adams) New Jersey: Ablex Publishing,. Whiting,B., & Whiting, J.W. (1975). Children of six cultures. Cambridge: University of Chicago Press,. Yavuzer, H. (2001). Çocuk Psikolojisi, İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi. Teachers' Conceptions about Game Based Learning in Mathematics Education: Ttnetvitamin Case Serkan Coştu, Serhat Aydın, Mehmet Filiz, Karadeniz Technical University – Turkey Abstract Many video games require players to master skills in demand by today’s employers. There are several attributes of games that would be useful for application in learning. There are differences between games for education and games for entertainment. A robust program of research and experimentation is needed to enhance development of educational games. Several barriers inhibit the markets for education games. Educational institutions and educators need to transform organizational systems and instructional practices to take greater advantage of new technology, including educational games. One of the most arduous transformations faced is to alter teachers' perceptions about educational games. As a consequence, the success of the integration of the educational computer games into teaching systems might be closely linked to the perceptions of teachers. Thus, we aimed to reveal the perceptions, conceptions, expectations and beliefs of the mathematics teachers about using educational games for classroom use. In this context we introduced a browser-based software at www.ttnetvitamin.com to the teachers. This software was first launched as a national competition for secondary school students in Turkey. Later we called for the conceptions of teachers regarding the utilization of educational games in mathematics classes and the likely problems over the course of integration of those games into lessons. The data in this case study were gathered from 4 primary school mathematics teachers via semi-structured interviews and analysed using Nvivo 7.0 software. The great majority of the participant teachers noted that educational games may both have pros and cons and the integration of those novel technologies into classroom environment may lead to several problems such as ineffective usage of limited time under the constraints 1436 Teachers' Conceptions about Game Based Learning in Mathematics Education of fulfilling the requirements of formal curriculum. The entire study group view the educational games as a worthy extracurricular educational activity. Key words: Game based learning, mathematics education, educational Technology. Introduction Play poses a different meaning for a child as well as it is an important engagement for the people from all ages. Play may be a powerful educational tool as well as an entertainment. Game settings are various. Especially in our age, with computers being an indispensable part of our lives, computer games became the new wave of entertainment trend for the children. The increasing amount of computers and interest in these computers as a result of widespread technology usage revealed that computer games might be used in educational activities for more permanent and effective learning outcomes (Kula, 2005). Studies into computer games are increasing day by day and this trend is well reflected on education. Computer games may be classified based on their educational aspects. In this context, computer games, educational computer games and games with educational aspects may be simply defined as follows: 1. Computer games: All the computer games in the market. 2. Educational computer games: Computer games specificially produced with the purpose of education. 3. Computer games with educational aspects: As shown in Figure 1, this set covers the games that are not primarily aimed at education but neverthless have educational aspects as well as the educational computer games. Since computer and internet technologies are on the way to become an indispensible part of educational settings, educators and experts are seeking for ways to effectively integrate these technologies into educational settings. Game Based Learning is one of these effective methods. Educational computer games may affect the attitudes of the students towards subjects in a positive manner. Educational computer games may be used for reviewing the necessary prerequisite knowledge for the students; for enriching the educational setting; and as a preference in learning verbal and conceptual learning (Yigit, 2007). Lessons may be made more fun, however the games should serve a purpose besides fun and should be related with learning. This is because in computer setting the general purpose for the educational games is learning. Thus the educational games should be planned in order to highlight their educational Serkan Coştu, Serhat Aydın, Mehmet Filiz 1437 aspect (Obut, 2005). Since educational computer games contribute to the mathematical thinking skills of students, it can be used in mathematics education frequently. This method that is used mostly by the countries with a high socioeconomical level has been introduced in Turkey very recently. The constructivist approach of the new curriculum requires the use of instructional technologies. The Ministry of National Education is in a current need of educational software, specifially written for the use of instructional technologies effectively in the new educational program. Recently a new software called "TTNetVitamin" has been developed with a $ 30 million investment and was donated to the Ministry of National Education (MEB, 2008). To help the students to benefit from this software, a competition named “TTNetVitamin” has been opened up. The conceptions of teachers and students should be determined for the widespread usage of the game based learning. In this sense, the teachers’ conceptions of the “TTNetVitamin” which is an educational game might give us an idea about the usability of this software. For this aim, our study was conducted to reveal the teachers’ attitudes about educational games and their conceptions about the use of the games similar to the one introduced in mathematics classes. We havent’t found any studies on mathematics teachers' conceptions about the educational games. From this point this study may contribute to the field both in terms of its sampling and its subject. This study may also make a contribution by providing the MEB the conceptions of mathematics teachers about the subject. With the help of this kind of studies the in-service training needs of teachers may be determined and game based learning can be made widespread. Therefore the main research question of this study was defined as “What are the teachers’ conceptions about the use of educational games in the game based mathematics learning?”. And besides this main research question we have posed the following sub problems: What are mathematics teachers’ conceptions about the use of educational computer games in mathematics classes? Method This is a case study research. In order to determine the teachers’ preconceptions about the game based learning a 5 questioned likert type survey consisting of 16 questions was employed. After the survey was implemented the teachers were introduced the game named “TTNetVitamin” and after that 5questioned semi structured interviews were employed. The sampling of the study consists of mathematics teachers in two primary schools in Trabzon in the 2008-2009 education period. Teacher and student surveys will be analyzed using frequencies and percentages. The teacher interviews will be recorded by tape-recorders and then will be transcripted. The interviews with the participants 1438 Teachers' Conceptions about Game Based Learning in Mathematics Education will be analyzed qualitatively and important statements will be quoted without any change. Findings and Discussion Findings of this study can be summarized under seven titles as advantages, disadvantages, classroom use aims, conceptions, current status, experiences and recommendations of game based learning. 1. Advantages of Game Based Learning Urge reflection Alleviate mathematics anxiety Reinforcement Self evaluation Retention Supportive Reification Relating with daily life 1 1 5 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 May be used in special eduation Motivation ft Saving time Perspective deepens In terms of practice Cognitive development In terms of learning Advantages In terms of students 1 1 In General: All teachers except one (that teacher is enrolled in a graduate study) made at least one comment about the advantages of the educational games and their integration to education. 2. Disadvantages of Game Based Learning Economical poverty Use of computer Level Unwillingness Central Examinations Lack of achieving goals Lack of building relationship Prerequisite knowledge Problems related with game Classroom management Diverting from lesson Time Inddividual interest Measurement-Evaluation School management In terms of learning In terms of practice Disadvantages In terms of Students ft 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 4 1 8 3 8 1 1 1 1439 Serkan Coştu, Serhat Aydın, Mehmet Filiz In General: All teachers mentioned at least one of the disadvantages of game based learning. Interestingly, the teacher who listed most disadvantages was the one who did not mention any advantages at all. Generally, teachers talked about the disadvantages of game based learning more than its advantages. This shows that teachers have some doubts about the integration of game based learning into education. 3. Classroom Use Aims of Game Based Learning Classroom use aim At the evaluation phase At the introduction phase At the implementation phase Whereever appropriate Teachers commented on the classroom use aims of game based learning in interviews. However only 3 teachers commented on this matter and this situation may show teachers' hesitation on this issue. ft 3 3 1 2 4. Conceptions about Game Based Learning Making education fun Usability Being supportive Being useful Addressing all senses Being facilitative Should be cautious Clear objectives are must Not preferring Being late Difficulty of implementation Negative Being instructive Both Conceptions Positive ft 2 2 6 5 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1440 Teachers' Conceptions about Game Based Learning in Mathematics Education 5. Current Status in Game Based Learning The scarcity of educational games Lack of educational aspects Unfamiliarity of educational games Expensiveness of games Design problem Number of games Computer laboratories The quality of computers The inappropriateness of curriculums Lack of adequate training in colleges In terms of administration Current status In terms of Educational Games Technically ft 3 1 2 1 1 2 4 2 4 1 6. Experiences related with game based learning 2 3 No experience Positive Experience Experiences ft Negative Experience The experiences of the teachers related about game based learning were examined in three classes such as positive, negative and no experience. All teachers except four commented and negative experiences seemed to outweigh other comments. 1 Increasing the number of available softwares Training of students In-service training Informing guardians Implementation of pilot studies Preperation of the setting Increase in lesson hours Guidance ft 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 Enunciating the objectives 2 Being zealous In terms of games Being equipped Preparation by experts Setting a balance between fun-knowledge Clearly defined objectives Enunciation of objectives Implementation of pilot study Relating with real life Establishing computer labs Setting mathematics classes Should be implemented out of class Should be implemented as a different lesson Should be implemented at school Abstaining from extravagance Application to appropriate subjects and aims Implementation out of school Training in colleges Physical Cond. Cautious planning Recommendations In terms of games Disclosing the aim Recommendations Serkan Coştu, Serhat Aydın, Mehmet Filiz 1441 7. Recommendations about the use of game based learning All teachers stated some comments on this theme and most of these comments accumulated under “practice” title. In terms of practice ft 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 3 2 1 In terms of teaching 3 2 1 1 1442 Teachers' Conceptions about Game Based Learning in Mathematics Education Results According to the teachers’ statements and experiences, a certain amount of students can not still access the Internet at their homes so it would make more sense to use game based learning at school. However, still many schools do not have computer labs with adequate equipments. This leads us to think that it’s not likely to use game based learning for many teachers at schools for the time being. Moreover teachers seem to have some issues relating the busyness of their programs, tight time schedules and the inflexibility of the new program in spite of the scarcity of time. Most teachers stated that they are well unaware of the educational games, the games that are easily accessible in the Internet are mostly far from instructive, clumsily prepared and contentually problematic, there are a scarce number of educational games on the market and those that exist are generally not affordable by the teachers. Teachers agreed on the point that educational games that are produced by an authorized group of experts and aimed at the subjects and objectives parallel to those of the curriculum may enhance the use of these games at schools and encourage teachers. In this regard the educational game “TTNetVitamin” may be used in classroom in case necessary conditions are met. Yet, to achieve this goal the required infrastructure should be founded, students and their guardians should be wellinformed and teachers should be trained starting from their graduate studies. As seen above, teachers actually voice different opinions about game based learning and its application in the classroom. It should be noted here that, some teachers adopt a constructive approach about game based learning whilst others still retain their traditional stances. The philosophical views of the teachers are emergent in their statements. Recommendations In order to expand the use of game based learning, either computer classes should be arranged for these applications or distinct technological mathematics classes should be set up where all needs of game based learning can be met. The curriculum should be reviewed by The Ministry of National Education by consulting expert views and subject weightings should be redesigned. Extra curricular softwares and internet based resources should be embedded in curriculum and made widespread. With a cooperation of the Universities and The Ministry of National Education, educational games should be developed cost-efficiently and distributed to teachers free of charge. Teachers, students and guardians should be informed about the software named “TTNetVitamin” and more active use of the software should be provided and necessary updates should be made. Moreover the game should be permanently developed through the views of its main users namely the teachers Serkan Coştu, Serhat Aydın, Mehmet Filiz 1443 and the students. In teacher colleges, awareness about game based learning should be increased, qualitative and quantitative studies should be overtaken and student teachers should be allowed to develop in-class game based activities. New courses on game based learning should be introduced at Faculties of Education. To raise awareness in the old teachers in-service trainings aimed at game based learning should be prepared. References Kula, A.,(2005) Ögretimsel Bilgisayar Oyunlarının Temel Aritmeİik İşlem Becerilerinin Gelişimine Etkisi,Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara Obut, S., (2005) İlköğretim 7.Sınıf Maddelerin İç Yapısına Yolculuk Ünitesindeki Atomun Yapısı ve Periyodik Çizelge Konusunun Eğitsel Oyunlarla Bilgisayar Ortamında Öğretimi ve Buna Yönelik Bir Model Geliştirme, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü,Manisa Yiğit, A., (2007) İlköğretim 2.sınıf Seviyesinde Bilgisayar Destekli Eğitici Matematik Oyunlarının Başarıya ve Kalıcılığa Etkisi, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi,Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal bilimler Enstitüsü, Adana. States and Perspectives in Qualification of Teachers for Realization of the Tasks of the Pedagogy of Leisure Time Aneta Barakoska, Institute of Pedagogy – F.Y.R.O.Macedonia Abstract In this work the stress is put on the pedagogical aspects of leisure time, more precisely the significance of schools and education in people's preparation for social life, work and proper usage of leisure time. Historically viewed, the more things were defined as leisure activities, the merrier they were maintained in the schools. Today, leisure activities present essential part of the whole human occupancy, while education is the central conductor of that preparation. Important hypothesis, in the practical pedagogical work, for successful realization of the tasks of pedagogy of leisure time is qualifying staff that will work in this domain. Our educational institutions undergo dramatic changes. People are neurotically possessed by their own insecurity, they are moving very slowly towards the pedagogy of leisure time and emancipation of personal constructive and creative capabilities. Western countries` experiences, concerning qualifying teachers and pedagogues to work more on the leisure time, show that the state in our country should be intensified. However, besides the academic efforts for innovations in university studying programs in accordance with the Bologna’s process, Pedagogy of leisure time as subject for studying at universities does not have the place it deserves. We may conclude that in the area of leisure time there is a lack of systematic work, methodological qualifying and practical hospitalizing of students. Access towards successful and planned solving of this problem, on the pedagogical universities, requires serious theoretical and practical approach towards qualification of students in the field of leisure time. This theoretical and practical qualifying of students in the field of leisure time will enable surpassing of the crisis in the realization of the leisure, crisis that left consequences in the students' qualification for usage of leisure time. 1446 States and Perspectives in Qualification of Teachers for Realization Key words: Leisure activities, education, school, teachers, qualification. Leisure time as a phenomenon of the contemporary society goes deeply into every pore of social life. Also, it is very strongly reflected into the pedagogical sphere, concerning conception, organization and realization of contemporary education. Leisure time is the time in which an individual (student) can live in accordance with their own characteristic nature, time when they can assert themselves and develop their qualities even more. Leisure time is important "instrument" for relaxation (rest), entertainment, diversion from everyday worries and problems - It is an important factor for development of personality. The significance of schools and education in leisure time is more than a basic question, when we talk about surpassing of the conflict between preparations for work and preparations for leisure time. Historically viewed, the more things were defined as necessary for leisure activities, the merrier they were maintained in schools. Great number of philosophers who worked in the domain of education stressed the importance of leisure as essential component of studying. John Dewey's work, in that respect, was most influential because it shifts the attention from content towards process. Dewey stressed the importance of education which should be based on personal and practical experience and its interests. Children gain knowledge, necessary for their entire life, throughout their own experience. The Italian Maria Montessori claims that the development of personality requires leisure and spontaneity. Consequently, she says, we have to study spiritual needs with complete scientific thoroughness and to enable environment that suits those needs. Studying the developing processes of evolution of personality, Jean Piaget describes the stages in the preparedness for studying. He considers play main way through which children gain new experience. Therefore, he says that studying and all other activities could be included into play. Playing and studying are not separated, they are united and they simply require leisure. Some other more contemporary authors, are also proponents of the importance of leisure as a central element in education. Charls Brightbill from Illinois thinks that leisure activities and education are mutually connected in a kind of circle in which leisure activities lead towards education and education leads back towards leisure activities. Leisure activities and education are essential for self development of personality; they have characteristics of working and studying in the name of pleasure through experience. Both of them should be free, open, variable and universally available. According to this author, through education we learn and prepare ourselves for enunciation in leisure time. In the leisure time we use knowledge gained through education, we educate ourselves through self-determination by implementing our own relative leisure (freedom). Aneta Barakoska 1447 Education is important as preparation for leisure activities. Many leisure activities include studying. For instance when we do sports and play games firstly we study physical skills (movements). Formal education is very important in learning basic skills for enunciation, reading and communication. Without language skills, written or oral, many possibilities for leisure activities are not available. Many leisure activities require relatively high level of preparation for communication. When a person has bigger capabilities of thinking, studying and communication, proportionally he or she will also have bigger capabilities of pleasure in leisure activities. (C.K. Brightbill and T.A. Mobley, 1977). John R. Kelly, also, speaks about the importance of education in development of interests for leisure activities through school studying programs. Essential connection between real education and leisure activities is leisure (freedom) which is important for both of them. However, this connection (leisure) is problematic. Principally the author centers the problems on functions of schools and leisure. Basic functions of schools are developing skills, teaching culture, character shaping, and socialization – inclusion in social life. Yet, those are not the only functions that schools have in a society. There are latent functions. These days, more and more latent (hidden) functions are considered very important for functioning of educational institutions. The connection between education and leisure activities may be expressed in many forms, but the essence of the question is: when can education be rich form of leisure activities? If we supervise the education as studying, much more as a life process with maximum leisure for personal needs, than education may be seen as a rich form of leisure activities. (J. R. Kelly, 1982). If education calls for self development, development of skills, abilities to think and study, accumulation of knowledge, preparation for beforehand set roles, then education must contain leisure as a central element. School is very important and it represents hope for development of students` interests and skills. At school children may feel pleasure and excitement because of the wide range of leisure activities. Not a single outer program for organization of leisure time has school`s field of vision and offers such a great number of possibilities. Nevertheless, if the functions and the structure of a school are contradictory to the basic meaning of leisure activities (freedom, leisure and inner pleasure) then the school can not teach leisure activities. Consequently, we may say that education and leisure activities require leisure (freedom) to a certain extent. Education is more then preparation, it is undertaking yourself in culture in a way that does not permit closure. Education is much more than consuming knowledge. It is a process that includes leisure and structure of self development as well as cultural heritage. According to this, the fact that sometimes we learn more during the leisure activities than during 1448 States and Perspectives in Qualification of Teachers for Realization education is not strange at all. Nowadays it is obvious that leisure activities represent essential part of the overall human living, while school and education are central conductor of that preparation. The question is how many of the numerous hypotheses, which are central for successful realization of leisure activities, includes our education. During the developing period our educational institutions have undergone dramatic changes. People are neurotically possessed by their personal insecurity, they are moving very slowly towards the pedagogy of leisure time and emancipation of personal constructive and creative capabilities. Qualification of staff for practical realization of the tasks of pedagogy of leisure time represents an important hypothesis for successful work in the field of leisure time. Therefore, next will be mentioned some state analysis in Republic of Macedonia compared to states in Western Europe. If we take into consideration the fact that students in primary schools spend most of the time with their teachers while in their crucial years for character shaping and selfbuilding, we will be aware that besides educating, teachers also influence students` habit forming and sense of rational use of leisure time. Primary schools and teachers are those which develop children`s interests for leisure activities and usually they also represent the only factor that works something in that area. According to this we may yet consider school primary institution where children gain experience about healthy usage of the leisure time through different activities organized by the school. However, besides the importance of leisure time in the development of personality, in Macedonia this educational area is not still taken enough seriously, many times it is even neglected. Students` work in the area of the leisure activities is not appreciated enough, so the teacher does not show any interest to start something in that direction. Consequently, we may say that in our country there is a kind of crisis in the development of leisure activities and this crisis influences students` way of using their knowledge of leisure activities in leisure time. Experiences show that teachers are not enough qualified to accomplish, as a whole, the tasks and goals of the pedagogy of leisure time. It is well known that not every teacher has an affinity, organizational and working capabilities to work with students on the educational leisure activities. This is insufficiently studied problem. The formal way of giving groups of students to teachers “so the teacher can fill up the number of classes required”, leaving the groups unexpectedly because they were only formally created and series of other negative phenomena, clearly prove this attitude. What is the state, concerning the question about qualifying staff, in Western Europe countries? As a result of the process of achieving proficiency in work, in many European countries there are many well qualified teachers in the domain of leisure time. In this direction, the number of the institutions which offer Aneta Barakoska 1449 educational programs for professional qualification of staff is increasing at different levels. According to Wolfgang Nahrstedt, in Germany there are already four basic professional profiles and each of them has specific dominant educational background: pedagogue in leisure time (sciences for education and upbringing); sports leader (sciences for physical education); cultural art workers (sciences for culture); and tourismologue (economic and geographic sciences). (Wolfgang Nahrstedt, 1989). According to W. Nahrstedt`s (1989) and Simon Priest`s (1988) comparative research (1988), in Europe, there are few different professional orientations for qualifying staff in the domain of leisure time: educational (Scandinavian countries, Germany); cultural (France, Italy, Switzerland); administrative (Great Britain, The Netherlands); and sports (Poland). Besides this there are also various educational levels on which staff is qualified. The highest percent in the realization of the educational programs for qualifying staff in the area of leisure time in France, Germany, England and Poland are under academic level, but with a stressed tendency for rising programs up to the academic level. The most famous studies in Europe on leisure time are in Tilburg, The Netherlands. WLRA`s (World leisure and recreation association) activities in this context are of great importance because this organization makes special efforts to establish new institutions for undergraduate studies in the domain of qualifying staff for leisure time. Basic characteristic and strategic determination of this institution is interdisciplinary access. Common goals of WLRA are ranging from establishing and stimulating training and development of leaders for leisure time around the world, to developing programs and strategies for education in the area of leisure time through international exchange and co-operation. Western countries` experiences, concerning qualifying teachers and pedagogues to work more on the leisure time, show that the state in our country should be intensified. However, besides the academic efforts for innovations in university studying programs in accordance with the Bologna’s process, Pedagogy of leisure time as subject for studying at universities does not have the place it deserves. Nowadays, the science pedagogy of leisure time is not enough maintained in the studies on the subject of pedagogy at pedagogical universities. In university studying programs the subject pedagogy of leisure time belongs to the group of optional subjects and it is proposed as a subject which students, may or may not study according to their choice. The subject pedagogy of leisure time is not obligatory at the pedagogical universities in Macedonia and at some universities it is not even included in the studying program as a subject. We may conclude that in the area of leisure time there is a lack of systematic work, methodological qualifying and practical hospitalizing of students. 1450 States and Perspectives in Qualification of Teachers for Realization Access towards successful and planned solution of this question on the pedagogical universities requires serious theoretical and practical approach towards qualification of students in the field of leisure time. According to us, the content of the theoretical part of the studying program should include: leisure time as social phenomena throughout development of society, especially for computer science society; socio-pedagogical analysis and interpretation of leisure time; contemporary society and people's life; leisure time in relation to anthropology, psychology, and social medicine; the notion leisure time and its content (leisure time activities and their characteristics and classification); contemporary pedagogical theory and practice; tasks and functions of leisure time in the entire education; leisure time activities and their methodology of pedagogical studies and research; principles and methods for organizing leisure time activities etc. During the practical part students should be taught forms how they can congregate; they should be introduced to the methodology of leisure activities; teachers should qualify students to perform definite skills (taking photographs, planning); they should introduce wide range of educational games for children; teachers should develop students' interests for monitoring and researching people; they should organize, in schools and other various social organizations which take care for youth's and children's recreation, pedagogical and methodological practice; students should be encouraged to write seminar works on the subject of pedagogy of leisure time etc. For more efficient and more systematic qualification of pedagogical staff that will work in the field of leisure time various seminars, courses, lectures and consultations can be organized where the staff will be able to relate theory and practice. By stressing some important points in the qualification of staff for work in the area of leisure time, we may clearly conclude that in the upcoming period this problem should be considered carefully and attentively. Pedagogy of leisure time can not evolve as scientific and pedagogical discipline without well specialized and educated (qualified) staff. References Barnett, L., (1988), (ed.) Research about Leisure:Past, Present and Future Chamaign, Sagamore publishing. Bozovic, R., (1979), Izkusenja slobodnog vremena, Mladost, Beograd. Brightbill, Charles, K., and T.A., Mobley, (1977), Educating for leisure – Centered living, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Dumazdier, J.,(1962), Vers une civilisation du loisir, Editions du Sevil, Paris. Dumazdier, J.,(1974), Sociology of leisure, New York, Elsevier North Aneta Barakoska 1451 Hollanhd, INC. Dumazdier, J.,(1975), Introduction, Society and leisure(Prague) European Centre of leisure and education,No.10. Ethel J.Saxman,(1988), Students Use in Leisure Time of Activities Learned in Physical Education in States Teachers College (Columbia Univ Teacher College No.217. Filipovic, N.,(1980), Vannastavna aktivnost ucenika, Svijeltlost, Sarajevo. Green, Tomas, F.,(1968), Work, Leisure and the American schools, New York – Pandom House. Hondo, T.,(1994), Leisure and popular culture in Transizion, London. Kelly, J.R., (1982), Leisure, New York, Prentice-Hall, INC. Lesnik, R., (1986), Bez pedagogije slobodnog vremena nema ni celovitog vaspitanja, Pedagogija, br.2, Beograd. Nahrstedt, W.,(1989),Leisure Education: In Search of a Concept for Leadership Traning in Eurpope, World Leisure and Recreation (WLRA), Vol.31, No.2. Narshrstedt, Wolfgang: (1974), Freizeitpadagogik in der nachtindustreillen Gesellschaft I. Neuwied/Darmstadt. Nash, J.B., (1960), Philosphy of recreation and leisure, Dubuque. Nulinger, J., (1981), Psihology of leisure, Springfild-Illinois, Charles C.Thomas Publisher. The In-Service Teachers’ Training in Greece: The Case of History Education in the Secondary Level Dimitris Mavroskoufis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki – Greece Abstract In this paper there is an attempt to examine the efforts for the in-service training of teachers who teach history in the Greek secondary schools (Gymnasium and Lyceum). At first, the author investigates the aims of the history teaching reformation between 1997 and 2007 (curricula, textbooks and teaching methods) which is being placed under the pursuit for the increasing of historical thinking and for the construction of historical consciousness. In succession, the author examines, according to relevant findings, the effectiveness of the in-service training programmes, especially from the viewpoint of transformative learning. The critical evaluation of these programmes is being placed under the criteria of the International Organizations and of European countries. The paper reaches the conclusion that there is a major gap in the in-service training of history teachers, which increase the obstacles for the development of critical and clear-headed thinking. Key words: In-service teachers’ training, history education, history didactics The Reformation of History Teaching in Greece (1997 – 2007) The reformation of history education at Greek secondary schools started in the school year 1997 – 1998 for upper secondary level (Lyceum) and completed in the year 2006 – 2007 for lower level (Gymnasium). New curricula were released and new textbooks were created. The reformation of curricula was based on the new concepts about history teaching as well as on the contemporary needs of the Information Age. Between the new demands for history education were the development of the critical – historical thinking and the creation of the historical consciousness. The evaluation system changed too. Goals and aims as well as forms of assessment were improved in order to correspond with new curricula and new schoolbooks. Besides these, new approaches for teaching this subject with the inclusion of historical sources, the 1454 The In-Service Teachers’ Training in Greece: The Case of History Education encouragement of a critical reading of them, and the cross-curricular projects at the Gymnasium were introduced. So, according to the official framework, history teaching was moved from the cognitive field to the critical thinking activities and to the construction of historical knowledge. But, as the years went by, the main problem with history teaching seemed to be the real practices that the teachers followed in their classrooms. The results in the General Exams for entrance to the tertiary education proved a high percentage of failure from 45 to 75%. The guidelines of the Pedagogical Institute to the teachers are too limited to allow a radical change on the subject, while the teaching personnel is not always prepared from its initial training at universities to adopt new instructional design and teaching strategies (Mavroskoufis 1999, Sakka 2006). In Greece, all graduates from all departments of Schools of Philosophy (Department of Literature-Classic or Modern Greek-, of Philosophy and Education, and of History and Archaeology) are allowed to teach history in secondary education. In addition, the subject can be taught by other teachers too, as of foreign languages, of Sociology, of Law and Citizen Education etc. But even in the Schools of Philosophy the history didactics and the practical courses are at the margin. Besides this, the nature of the examinations which are held every two years by the Supreme Screening Council (ASEP) for the entrance of new teaching staff in the profession can not lead to the selection of the best among candidates. For example, in these exams the topics on history didactics go back to the old traditional views of what the history and the history teaching is (Mavroskoufis 2006a & b). So, a systematic discussion and training in dealing with academic, methodological and communicative tools of reflection about “the past” is only at the beginning, because it goes hand in hand with the slow development of the new discipline of history didactics. This means for history teaching that there is a gap between the official rhetoric about the learning of critical thinking skills in the history classrooms and the factual knowledge and traditional methods which are the teaching canon. The Contemporary Needs for History Teaching Most regions of the world are undergoing a process of rapid political, social, and economic change. This restructuring has a strong impact on the cultural sphere, an impact which has been termed as “accelerated cultural change”. Under this process, history teaching is confronted with various new challenges. Successful teaching methods and contents are no longer accepted unquestioningly. There is an increasing need for complex, integrative and dynamic methods of teaching and learning, which enable the learner not only to acquire declarative knowledge about certain historical facts, but also to develop procedural knowledge which can be acted upon in concrete, everyday social Dimitris Mavroskoufis 1455 situations. Methods, which allow the learner to experience the complexity of social change and which help her or him to develop social competencies (Bruno-Jofré & Schiralli 2002, Ecker 2003). As contemporary theory has underlined the contingent and contested nature of historical knowledge, so too has research on pupils learning emphasized the need for pupils to interact actively with material and transform it in order to make it personally meaningful and useful. This has pointed to the importance of understanding the ways in which pupils learn in their subject, of understanding their perspectives on learning, and of encouraging them to explore their own conceptions of teaching and learning so that they can become more effective critical thinkers of the sort most valued in a history education. The result has been a growing trend towards teaching methods which place the pupils at the centre of the learning. Since 1990s, this has been a prominent thread in most major developments in history teaching (The Subject Centre for History 2007). The “accelerated cultural change” and the contemporary research on history didactics affect the teacher’s role in general as well as co-operation among colleagues. But even today, there is very little co-ordination between subject teachers who teach the same class. Teachers need to be trained to apply complex methods and co-operate with colleagues, they need to be able to react flexibly to any other problems which may arise in their professional life. Therefore, the education and training of teachers also need to be remounted into a rich learning environment where teachers (or student teachers) can acquire and improve the necessary academic, didactic, and organizational competencies. Turning teachers into critical thinkers clearly requires becoming more reflective about what they do in their classroom (Ecker 2003). In history teaching it is taken as axiomatic that a principal goal is to encourage pupils to think critically, deeply and independently. The effective history teaching demands a high level of knowledge and skills, particularly as pupils learn in many different ways. Developing these abilities clears awareness of what they are doing when they are doing it. However, lesson plans transmit a “ready-made” body of knowledge (facts and interpretations) from the textbook -written under the state authority and only one for each class- to the pupils who see it as their job to absorb as much of this information as they can. The “banking concept of education”, according to Paulo Freire (1970), may be a misconception on the part of pupils, but at least part of the problem may be the habits and assumptions of teachers about teaching, which lead pupils to adopt relatively superficial approaches to learning. Here, an awareness of recent development in the field of research on teaching and learning can prove helpful in focusing attention, generating well-founded ideas and providing a wider framework for understanding what is happening in a teaching / learning interaction (Cunningham Florez 2001, The Subject Centre for History 2007). 1456 The In-Service Teachers’ Training in Greece: The Case of History Education This involves a cycle process of self-reflection, like the Kolb’s “Learning Cycle” (1984), the key stages of which are observation, reflection, planning, and action (or new action). So, it is clear that the intellectual shifts and related ideological debates have set new pedagogical demands on history teachers and programmatic demands on initial and on in-service training. Today, the teachers of history need to have for effective history teaching an understanding of history as a discipline, its critical areas of controversy, related historiographical skills, and the various explanatory paradigms with which historians work. In addition, they must have taken pedagogical, history didactic and practical courses. Moreover, teaching history in a contemporary classroom requires that the teachers possess the ability to question multiple perspectives, recognize alternative narratives of the past, work across differences, use in their lessons the information technology, and find a common thread in analysis of whatever framework they choose to use. Only in these way pupils with different socio-cultural backgrounds, experiences, needs and interests could be included in a historical community (Bruno-Jofré & Schiralli 2002, CoE Recommendation 2001, Edmonds et al. 2005, Stradling 2000, and Virta 2007). The Importance and the Basic Principles of In-Service Teacher Training Today there is a discernible difference between “what is” and “what could be” in teacher education. Pre-service teachers are often unaware or poorly informed of explicit teaching skills. As a result pre-service teachers might be given insufficient guidelines to follow in their quest to become effective. Teachers who do not conceptualize and refine through practicing generic skills of teaching with struggle to become competent practitioners during the early years of their career have less possibility to succeed later (ILO/UNESCO 2006, Laut 2000, and Navarro & Verdisco 2000). So, the question is not whether teachers should receive specialized preparation for teaching, but what kind of it. Scholarship, viewpoints, and research have led to numerous efforts to develop selective skills in teacher education preparation. Several instructional alternatives have been put forward that emphasize skill development. Those have been supported by research and behavior modification, interaction analysis, inquiry training, microteaching, protocols, reflective teaching, simulations, and teacher effectiveness training (Laut 2000). Because of the many differences between the teaching staff, but also because of the rapid changes on what learning is and on what the learners learn, the most important step toward improved the effectiveness of teachers is their in-service training. The in-service teachers need to have knowledge and opportunities to improving their abilities and skills for their own personal development and for the development of the educational organization too. In the framework of the Dimitris Mavroskoufis 1457 “lifelong learning” the continuing professional development of teachers can include relevant activities: improving teachers’ general education background, as well as their knowledge and understanding of the subject they teach; instruction on how children learn; developing practical skills and competencies; learning new teaching strategies and how to use new technologies; improved professionalism and ethics; in addition to providing knowledge and skills linked to the ever-changing needs of a dynamic society (Laut 2000, OECD 1998, and UNESCO 2006). Participation in professional development activities has been shown to have a significant positive impact on teachers’ beliefs and practices, on pupils’ learning, and on the implementation of educational reforms (ILO 2000, OECD 1998). The in-service teachers’ training programmes must take into account the reflective teaching practice, in order to enable the teachers to understand their own actions and the reactions they prompt in themselves and in learners (Brookfield 1995). And because it is estimated that as little as 10 to 20 percent of the knowledge or skills taught in training programmes are effectively transferred to the workplace, the training programmes must be designed that have significant impact on trainees. Educational experts and psychologists suggest that the instructional methodology and the content of the training programmes must have as main goal the transfer of learning, which is regarded as a process where the learner plays a key role, in order to apply learning in new situations. Because of that the main characteristics of training programmes must be: flexibility, practicality, professionalism, and sustainability (Cunningham Florez 2001, Intergovernmental Studies Program Primer 2006, and Leberman et al. 2006). Besides this, adult learning is social and active learning, based on experiences and real needs of learners, on mutual respect and on feedback. So, the training programmes must look like “communities of learning and practice” (Wenger 1998). Teachers as the first learners, through their participation in a professional learning community, become more effective, and pupils’ outcomes increase (SEDL 2008). Although transfer of learning is difficult, it is possible to create conditions that promote rather than inhibit transfer. Research suggests that the characteristics of trainees may be as much as, or even more significant than, the design of the training programme or instructional methodology. Organizations can build a composite of individuals who learn well by correlating trainee characteristic data with learning outcomes assessed through formal evaluation. Supervisory support is important in the workplace to affect the transfer of learning and training, and is one component of building a culture of transfer (Intergovernmental Studies Program Primer 2006). In this framework the professional learning community is seen as a powerful staff development approach and a potent strategy for school change and improvement. 1458 The In-Service Teachers’ Training in Greece: The Case of History Education Unfortunately, in Greece the teaching profession has ignored the criteria of the profession (specialized body of knowledge and skills acquired). So, it has remained a semi-profession. Policies on teacher education are, like in many other countries, fragmented, with no links between pre-service and in-service training. Greece continues to lack systematic programmes for beginning teachers and is still unable to make adequate provision for the professional development of teachers. The content of teacher training programmes did not focus on reflective practice, active learning, innovation, creativity or partnership building. In addition, there is often a disjuncture between the teacher training provided and the reality of the schools, their communities, and the world of work (Sakka & Argyrou 2005). Although recent papers and recommendations from international organizations insist on the need to place teachers “at the heart of the process”, on the fact that classroom reform rests on the capacity and willingness of teachers to implement it, and on the “upgrading of their status” if lifelong learning is to fulfill its central function in future societies, the in-service training is in the margin (Delors 1996, ILO 2000, and UNESCO 2006). Due to the fact that the Greek educational system is very centralized, teachers’ training is not independent of this broad educational context. The programmes are being designed form the Pedagogical Institute in Athens and materialized in the Regional Training Centres (PEK). Most of these programmes are regarding to the beginning teachers and are fixed and facsimile for all, without any distinction between those who have teaching experience or not, and those who have graduated form departments where they had been taught discipline and subject didactics or not. The history didactics represent almost 4 – 5 percent of these programmes, while the practice in the real classroom is underestimated (Mavroskoufis 2006a & b). Occasionally, when new history textbooks are going to be introduced (e.g. in 1998 and in 2006), the teachers are being trained on the ways in which they can use these. Sometimes, training programmes are being designed from universities (2nd and 3rd Community Support Framework), but regarding to only a small part of teaching staff (Gravani & John 2005), or by the Pedagogical Institute itself with specific focus on teaching history by technology of information and communication. There are also training programmes, prepared from International Organizations or from Non Governmental Organizations, with special focus on multiculturalism, on multiperspectivity, on new teaching methodologies or on development and use of additional teaching materials. School- or classroombased training is very rare, though teachers’ responsibility would imply greater autonomy in the creation of training models and training curricula. Closely linked to the question of autonomy is that of the teachers’ role in research, reflection and innovation. Investigating pedagogical practice in classes and schools, transforming the knowledge gained into innovative changes in content Dimitris Mavroskoufis 1459 or methodology which improve learning outcomes, and networking this information to other practitioners are crucial if a real learning community is to emerge in schools and training sites. But even these training programmes are usually not satisfying. There is a set of problems in established training practices that the training politics should confront with: failures in the content of training, in the impact of training, failures in integrating teachers’ training into the larger context of education policy and institutions, failures in the application of technology in the field of teachers’ training that may reinforce the trend toward continuous education, failures in the group training and networking, and in the creation of communities of practice, failures in the intensive use of pedagogic support and supervision, failures in the response to social and educational priorities at the local level (Navarro & Verdisco 2000). Conclusions Of course, there is no perfect way to train teachers. Success is highly sensitive to context. Perennial formulas, by definition, are hard to find. But the priority given to in-service training stems from a recognition that a substantial share of teachers are poorly prepared to perform well in the classroom. In Greece there are certain problems still existing in history teaching. Moreover, the history teaching profession has ignored the criteria of the profession (specialized body of knowledge and skills acquired). So, it has remained a semiprofession. It is characteristic that not one Greek history teachers association participates in EUROCLIO, because such an association does not exist. The Government, the Pedagogical Institute, university departments and teacher associations would sponsor in-service training programmes and workshops focusing on validated history teaching skills and on the training needs of the differential staff, which teaches the subject. One stand point could be the study on secondary teachers’ training in history didactics, which was prepared between October 2007 and March 2008 by the author and his associates on behalf of Organization for Teachers’ Training (O.EP.EK.). In this study the training experiences, needs, interests and preferences of 140 teachers (“philogists”) concerning history teaching have been investigated. The sample of the survey was representative of the teaching population (80% females, 20% graduates from History and Archaeology Departments, 55% 35 – 55 years old, 56,5% over 15 years in service). Only 37,4% of the sample had been taught history didactics in short time training programmes, but the 53% of them were very little satisfied. Without any statistically significant difference 73,6% would prefer for the training model practical exercises in the classrooms, workshops and group working, while for the content the majority was directed to the instructional design, to the uses of teaching materials and of new technology, to 1460 The In-Service Teachers’ Training in Greece: The Case of History Education the critical approaches to historical sources, to the contemporary teaching strategies, to the historical education out of schools (museums, historical landscapes, monuments etc) and to the assessment models in history teaching. References Brookfield, S. (1995). Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Bruno-Jofré, R. & Schiralli, M. (2002). Teaching history: A discussion of contemporary challenges. Encounters on Education, 3, 117-127. Council of Europe (2001). Recommendation Rec (2001)15 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on History Teaching in Twenty-First Century Europe. Retrieved August 12, 2008, from http://wcd.coe.int. Cunningham Florez, M.-A. (2001). Reflective Teaching Practice in Adult ESL Settings. National Center for ESL Literacy Education. Digest (March 2001). Retrieved March 21, 2008, from: htpp://www.cal.org/ncle/ digests/reflect.htm. Delors, J. et al. (1996). Learning, The Treasure Within. Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century. Paris: UNESCO. Ecker, A. [Ed]. (2003). Initial Training for History Teachers: Structures and Standards in 13 Member States of the Council of Europe. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Edmonds, M. et al. (2005). History and Critical Thinking. Wisconsin Historical Society: Madison. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum. Gravani, M. N. & John, P. D. (2005). ‘Them and us’: Teachers’ and tutors’ experiences of a ‘new’ professional development course in Greece. Compare, 35 (3), 303-319. Intergovernmental Studies Program Primer (2006). A Practitioner Guide to Transfer of Learning and Training. Albany, NY: University of Albany, Rockefeller College of Public Affairs & Policy International Labour Organization (2000). Lifelong Learning in the TwentyFirst Century: The Changing Roles of Educational Personnel. Report. Geneva: ILO. Dimitris Mavroskoufis 1461 International Labour Organization – UNESCO (2007). Joint ILO / UNESCO Committee of Experts on the Application of the Recommendations Concerning Teaching Personnel. Report. Geneva: ILO. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Laut, J. (2000). Identification of Critical Teaching Abilities. Coastal Carolina University, College of Education. Retrieved May 14, 2008, from http://eric.ed.gov. Leberman, S., McDonald, L. & Doyle, S. (2006). The Transfer of Learning. Participants’ Perspectives of Adult Education and Training. Hampshire, UK: Gower. Mavroskoufis, D. K. (2006a). From the research on teaching to the praxis: an effort for bridging the gap. Pedagogical Currents in the Aegean, 2, 19-29 [in Greek]. Mavroskoufis, D. K. (2006b). The connection between Tertiary and Secondary Education through A.S.E.P.: The case of History Didactics. In Proceedings of 4th International Conference on History of Education. University of Patras, Greece [in Greek]. Navarro, J. C. & Verdisco, A. (2000). Teacher Training in Latin America: Innovations and Trends. Washington, D.C.: Inter-Americal Development Bank. OECD (1998). Staying Ahead: In-service Training and Teacher Professional Development. Paris: OECD Publishing. Sakka, V. (2005). History Assessment in Greek Secondary Education. EUROCLIO Bulletin 21, 11-19 [in Greek]. Sakka, V. (2006). The initial training of history teachers: The Greek reality, the European policy and the Recommendations of Council of Europe. Pedagogical Currents in the Aegean, 2, 30-59 [in Greek]. Sakka, V. & Argyrou, E. (2005). The “philologist” and the history teaching in secondary education: The problems and the perspectives in Greece and in Europe. Seminario PEF, 31, 133-160 [in Greek]. Southwest Educational Development Laboratory [SEDL] (2008). Professional Learning Communities. Austin, TX: SEDL. Stradling, R. [Ed]. (2000). The Stability Pact Conference on “The Initial and InService Training of History Teachers in South East Europe” (Athens, 1462 The In-Service Teachers’ Training in Greece: The Case of History Education Greece, Sept. 28-30, 2000). Proceedings. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Stradling, R. (2003). Multiperspectivity in History Teaching: A Guide for Teachers. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. UNESCO (2006). Teachers and Educational Quality: Monitoring Global Needs for 2015. Paris: UNESCO. The Subject Centre for History, Classics and Archaeology (2007). Developing History Teaching through Reflective Practice. Glasgow, Scotland: University of Glasgow. Retrieved July 20, 2008, from: htpp://www.hca.headacademy.ac.uk/resources/guides. Virta, A. (2007). Historical Literacy: Thinking, Reading, and Understanding History. Journal of Research in Teacher Education, 4, 11-25. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The New Paradigm in the Evaluation of the Student’s Achivements in the Natural-Mathematical Subjects Nikolina Georgieva, Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski” – Bulgaria The educational reform intended to specify the teaching content in mathematics and natural subjects goes through several stages. The first stage, in the 1960s and the 1970s, involved the idea of “minimum competence” to be given to the main contingent of student’s. This minimum was characterized by an abrupt decrease of the requirements to the volume of teaching content and enhancing the practical orientation of school courses. This idea was discarded by the pedagogical practice because it turned out that minimum for everyone can be optimum for no one. As a result, in the 1980s and the 1990s a second stage of improvement of the secondary education in mathematics and natural subjects was reached or the so-called “second wave”. The slogan of this second stage was “back to sciences” and it includes the following principles: • combining the scientific character with intelligibility; • increasing the comprehensive character of the teaching content; • developing of skills for applying the natural science knowledge for the performing of activities, the forming of competences in student’s. The third stage of the reform in the mathematics and natural sciences curriculum, which started at the beginning of the 1990s and still continues, is directly related to the development of the society in the 21c., to the development of communication and information technologies. Therefore, in the limelight appears the need for enhancing the progress of student’s in mathematics and natural subjects. The criteria for the selection of teaching content are formed as follows: • The teaching content in mathematics and natural subjects needs to be intelligible, but it also needs to comply with the conditions and requirements of the highly developed technological society of the 21c.; 1464 The New Paradigm in the Evaluation of the Student’s Achivements • The teaching content in mathematics and natural subjects should be necessary for the study of the other school subjects, for performing of certain school activities, for forming of skills for the use of perspective methods, ideas and objective laws with a large scope of application. The substantial changes of the teaching content mentioned and the outlining of the main innovation ways for “modernization” of the teaching process is related to the public educational requirements for the teaching content adopted in Bulgaria in 2000. Together with this in the limelight also appear the problems of the objective measurement and assessment of student’s progress. They result from the drastic changes that have occurred worldwide with regard to the objective assessment of a student’s progress and refer to the technical, pedagogical, social and political aspects of the interaction between assessment and teaching. As a result of a research and analysis of the ideas in this area [2, 3, 4] a new strategy is created where emphasis should be placed on the interaction between educational objectives, teaching content and assessment of the results from the teaching process. What is meant is the adoption and application of the ideas of the pedagogical constructivism in the teaching process. In general it highlights the processes of constructing the knowledge on the part of the student, but in combination with external interferences coming from the teacher. Three aspects of the teaching process Technologies Knowledge Skills Competences Value System система are defined, namely: fig. 1 This configuration underlies the reform for increasing the quality of the mathematics and natural sciences secondary education. The substantial changes in the teaching process mentioned also result in a new paradigm in assessment. The way the progress of pupils is measured and assessed also defines the way the teaching content is taught and acquired. The main thesis is based on the methodological concepts for the leading role of assessment in the teaching progress. The personality-oriented teaching requires the performing of activities in the teaching process. The purpose is to enhance the activity of pupils so that they are taught to get used to 1465 Nikolina Georgieva performing “research activity”, to discuss and analyze the results of that activity. The assessment of the student’s activity, of the student’s “coping” with the matter in the process of its study is an alternative to the tests based on the choice of the right answer. This new paradigm in assessment also more fully corresponds to the reform in the teaching content in mathematics and natural subjects. The assessment of the student’s studying activity and the student’s progress in mathematics and natural subjects is most closely related to placing the student in a “laboratory”, the student’s “facing” a certain scientific problem and the observation on how the student distributes the procedures (stages) for the “research” to be carried out, how the pupil analyzes the data, how the student draws the relations between them by using the preceding knowledge and experience. The assessment of the student’s study activity in mathematics and natural subjects is inseparable from the good teaching practice of the teacher and provides opportunity of improving the teaching content. good teaching practice effective assessment fig. 2 Let us illustrate what has been said so far with the following example. The “Electric Circuits” Chapter in the Nature Science subject. 6th form [6]. The topic is constructed in 6 lessons. While teaching them, activating the pupil’s participation may be done by way of forming groups or teams. The groups may deal with research activity, they may discuss the differences, or they may draw general conclusions, etc. The assessment task is as follows: Task: Given are 5 identical boxes (A, B, C, D, E). What elements does each box need to contain so that current may run provided that each one of them may contain one of the following five elements:[fig. 3] • two batteries; • a wire; • a bulb; • a battery and a bulb; • nothing. 1466 The New Paradigm in the Evaluation of the Student’s Achivements fig. 3 Possible are three methods of assessment, through which the stages of pupil’s thinking when solving the problem may be followed. а/ immediate observation by the teacher of the study activity performed by the student; b/ homework sheet on which the pupil writes the solution;[fig. 4]. 1467 Nikolina Georgieva fig. 4 c/ computer simulation, i.е. the pupil’s work is recorded on computer [fig. 5] 1468 The New Paradigm in the Evaluation of the Student’s Achivements fig. 5 This task is used to assess the knowledge, skills and competences of the students at the end of the 6 lessons. The experiment showed that the pupils meet serious difficulties in its solution. Therefore, a change was made in the methods of assessment. This change consists of the following: after every two lessons intermediate assessments are made within 15 minutes, by using test tasks with constructed answer, and through them the acquired basic content of these lessons is checked /fig. 6/. 1469 Nikolina Georgieva fig. 6 After such assessment, at the end of every two lessons, depending on the problems found, a change is made in the methods of teaching the following lessons so that to correct these problems. After the six lessons again an assessment task is given that is actually testing the students’ competences based on the already acquired knowledge and skills. In that case the results appear to be considerably better than those in the first case and they cover the requirements of the public educational requirements. What conclusions can we draw? 1. The assessment of the studens’ study activity, and therefore of their knowledge, skills and competences, provides the opportunity of a closer binding of the assessment with the teaching content and with the teaching itself. The term “teaching content” implies a broader meaning including also the process of teaching and acquiring itself. 2. With this was of assessment the students are involved in activities in the study of the teaching content itself. An important moment is the definition of the content goals of the topic and the system of study activities through which this topic will be learned by the students. In many cases, when the goals are not clear enough, the activities performed by the students’ result in their clarification, what is important from the teaching content and what is of minor importance and may be left out. Thus, the teaching content and its structuring are improved; i.е. in the process of assessment the teaching content acquires a 1470 The New Paradigm in the Evaluation of the Student’s Achivements new context, new explanation through the specification of the goals and finding discrepancies between the lessons on the topic. 3. A new strategy is defined in the interaction between the goals, the students’ study activity, the teaching content (constructivistic mode) and the assessment (reconstruction of the teaching content). The pupil’s assessment activities include: • specific task; • form in which the result should be presented; • system for result assessment. In conclusion I would like to emphasize that this new strategy, the way in which the presented elements are combined will be decisive for the increase of the quality of the secondary education in mathematics and natural subjects in the conditions of the changing school in 21 c. References Bizhkov, G.G. The school Grade as Immanent Characteristics of Innovations, Otvoreno Obshtestvo Magazine, issue 5-6, 1992 Georgieva, N. The Educational Requirements (Standards) to Teaching Content Essence, Characteristics, Structure, Strategies in Education and Scientific Policy Magazine, issue 3, 1995 Methodology and Technology for Creating of Public Educational Requirements, NIIO, С., 2000 Constructivism in Education, Perspectives Magazine, UNESCO, issue 118, July 2001 Denis Kallen. Secondery Education in Europe: Problems and Prospects, Counsil of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg,1997 Richard J. Shavelson, On the Romance of Science Curriculum and AssessmentReform in the United States, Research Bulletin 90, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 1995 The Opinions of Teachers’ and Prospective Teachers to Improve the Quality in Education Eda Erdem, Özcan Demirel, Hacettepe University – Turkey Abstract Teachers play an important role in the quality of instruction. Teachers can be considered as a tutor because they direct their students to attain new knowledge by themselves and use their higher order thinking skills to realize meaningful learning in teaching and learning process, teaching qualification is the main topic to train well-educated teachers. In this study it is aimed to determine the opinions of teachers and prospective teachers regarding to improve the quality in education. Qualitative research method was used to gather the data and interpret the research findings. For this reason, a focus-grouped method was used and an interview was done to support the focus-group. The working group of this study was the teachers who had their professional development and prospective teachers enrolled at University of Hacettepe, elementary student teachers in an undergraduate teacher-training programme. Finally, some suggestions have been made with regard to enhance the quality in education by taking into account the teachers’ and prospective teachers’ opinions. Key words: Teachers, prospective teachers, quality in education, teachers’ opinion. Introduction It takes little analysis to see that education levels differ dramatically between developing and developed countries. Building upon several decades of thought about human capital – and centuries of general attention to education in the more advanced countries – it is natural to believe that a productive development strategy would be to raise the schooling levels of the population. And, indeed, this is exactly the approach of the Education for All initiative and a central element of the Millennium Development Goals. (Eric A. Hanushek and Ludger Wößmann 2007). 1472 The Opinions of Teachers’ and Prospective Teachers to Improve the Quality in Education There is a strong emphasis on the pursuit of education quality in ongoing educational reforms in both local and international contexts (Cheng & Tam 1997). Education is a human right. Education is the primary agent of transformation towards sustainable development, increasing people’s capacities to transform their visions for society into reality. Education for sustainable development teaches individuals how to make decisions that consider the longterm future of the economy, ecology and equity of all communities. Quality in education plays important role in the face of improvement of a country. Quality education is holistic and a prerequisite for education for sustainable development. It upholds and conveys the ideals of a sustainable world. It takes into consideration the social, economic and environmental context. Quality education is locally relevant and culturally appropriate. It is informed by the past and relevant to the present, and prepares individuals for the future. Education teaches people to be better individuals, family members, community members and citizens. Education for Sustainable Development has four major thrusts: • Promote and improve basic education • Reorient existing education programs at all levels to address sustainable development • Develop public awareness and understanding of sustainability • Provide training The quality of education and training is considered in all Member States to be a concern of the highest political priority. High levels of knowledge, competencies and skills are considered to be the very basic conditions for active citizenship, employment and social cohesion. Lifelong learning is an important means of shaping one’s future on a professional and personal level, and highquality education is essential in the light of labour market policies, and the free movement of workers within the European Union (European Commission, 2000). The future of our country and the world depends on our children and college students receiving the best education. Using the framework of quality in our school districts, we can design roadmaps for continuous improvement. When educators understand what continuous improvement is all about, they gain confidence that they can shape and alter the nature of their schools. Purpose The goal of this survey is to focus on opinions of teachers and prospective teachers regarding to improve the quality in education. It aims to investigate main three questions: Eda Erdem, Özcan Demirel 1473 1. What is the teachers’ opinion about the quality of education in our schools? 2. What do they think about the main deficiencies in our education system? 3. What do they recommend to improve the quality in education? Methodology In this study qualitative research method is used. Interview method was applied to gather data. Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant’s experiences. The interviewer can pursue in-depth information around the topic. Interviews may be useful as follow-up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate their responses. (McNamara, 1999) The qualitative research interview seeks to describe and the meanings of central themes in the life world of the subjects. The main task in interviewing is to understand the meaning of what the interviewees say. (Kvale,1996) Data for this study included personal interviews. In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the respondent. All data was collected by teachers’ and prospective teachers from different schools in Turkey. The following paragraphs will provide detail for all data sources. During the data collection process the interviewer was considered a part of the measurement instrument and interviewers are well trained in how to respond to any contingency. In this study the interviewers were the researchers. They give importance to organize in detail and rehearse the interviewing process before beginning the formal study. Interviewers know more than simply how to conduct the interview itself. They have background of the study and why the study is important. Standardized, open-ended interview was used to gather interview data. For standardized, open-ended interview the same open-ended questions are asked to all interviewees; this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared. For the stages of interview investigation the following stages were applied: • Thematizing-the why and what of the investigation. • Designing -plan the design of the study. • Interviewing -conduct the interview based on a guide. • Transcribing -prepare the interview material for analysis. • Analyzing -decide on the purpose, the topic, the nature and methods of analysis that are appropriate. • Verifying -ascertain the validity of the interview findings. • Reporting -communicate findings of the study based on scientific criteria. 1474 The Opinions of Teachers’ and Prospective Teachers to Improve the Quality in Education Student interviews were conducted within the last two months with fourteen of teachers and prospective teachers participating. The semi-structured protocol consisted of questions regarding the participants' view of the "What is their opinion about quality in education?" and "How does quality in education can be improved?" The interviewers followed the interview protocol, but probed for more detailed responses when possible. Data Analysis Two researchers participated in coding the interviews. The researchers individually looked for themes in the interviews and created codes. The two researchers each coded the 14 interviews with the initial agreed upon set of codes. Through this process, new codes were developed, discussed, and agreed upon. The interviews were re-coded using the final set of codes. Finally, the researchers compared codes and negotiated agreement on each interview's final coding. The codes used for this study are described in the results section. Results Of the fourteen participants interviewed and these fourteen participants who provided answers that were coded in the same manner. Results were gathered according to the questions in the interview document and interpreted through the results. Teachers’ and Prospective Teachers Opinions about the Quality of Education in the Schools Teachers and prospective teachers have the common idea about the new program. They pointed out that new program has been applyied since 2005 and they think that application of new program affects the quality of education. But according to their answers there are some problems about the new program. They emphasized that these problems emerges from lack of teacher’s knowledge about the new program. Also they emphasized that teachers play the main role for qualitative education. Each teacher should make an effort for teaching individually. The other factors that affect quality of education are students, instruction, and relation with administrators, socio-economic status, and communication with parents, physical environment, technology and using various instructional methods. One of the interviewers pointed out this by saying: T.I.1: “I think students, instruction, relations with the administrators, are parts of quality. Apart from these, physical environments, technology, multi-media…also increase the quality in education.” Eda Erdem, Özcan Demirel 1475 The Main Deficiencies in Our Education System Teachers significantly highlighted to lack of instructional materials and they think that most of the teachers aren’t very good at applying instructional methods in the classrooms. They think especially the deficiency of these two factors affect the quality of education negatively. One of the prospective teachers stated that by saying: S.I.1: “The teacher must encourage the students for active learning, for this reason, they must use various instructional methods, materials…they should make the learning process more interesting and concrete.” According to teachers and prospective teachers, the other deficiencies are lack of communication and interaction among teachers and students. The physical environments are not good enough for effective teaching. Students usually sit back to back, they don’t see each other’s faces and they can’t understand the philosophy of the new program; especially they can’t transfer the new learning ideas to real life situations. The main deficiency is the school principals, because they do not cooperate and colloborate with the teachers. In fact, they should behave to all teachers equally. One of the teachers pointed out this situation by saying: T.I.2.: “The understanding of administration differs from school to school, principal to principal. The quality of administration is dependent upon the administrators’ personal characters and qualifications and also his administration background. Their common suggestions about the new program there must be no contradiction between the course books and subject-matters. And some of the subjects do not fit to values in Turkish culture. They also think that the last improvements in the program aim to make students more involved and effective in the learning process. Students think more effectively, inquire, and produce solutions to the problems. It gives more responsibilities to teachers. For the student personality services, they stated that there must be medical personnel and councelling and guidance service at every school but unfortunately most of the schools don’t have any health personnel. The other deficiency in education is social activities. Social activities play an important role for the students. One of the teachers pointed out this by saying: T. I. 3.: “Students should have an opportunity to attend any kind of course such as music, drama, sports and drawing. There is a big gap between schools and school children in the eastern and 1476 The Opinions of Teachers’ and Prospective Teachers to Improve the Quality in Education western part of the country. We should give the students dresses, books and teaching materials. So we have to support them in every respect. Recommendations to improve the quality of education Teachers think that physical environments should be better. Firstly, classrooms are over crowded; they decrease the quality in education. Secondly, teachers, students and parents should work cooperatively and collaboratively. Thirdly, socio-cultural activities should be improved to train well behaved students. Fourthly, teachers should be encouraged to train themselves and follow the professional publications and new improvements in education, so they will have a chance to present good practices during the implementation phase of the new curricula. Last but not least, administrators should give a boost to teachers in their schools, and successful teachers should be awarded by the administrators. One of the teachers indicated this by saying: T.I.2: “… I believe that teachers should attend seminars, symposiums, and must be encouraged to train themselves to update themselves and these teachers should be awarded in order to motivate them professionally. It should be a difference between the teachers who attend this kind of activities and who don’t.” Administrators also should give more information and support for the implementation of new program. The other suggestion goes to education faculties. In initial education, faculties of education should give more effective education; There should be a balance between theory and practice. The prospective teachers should transfer the theoretical aspects to the real real life situations. By this way, they can learn meaningfully and attain persistent knowledge. One of the prospective teachers indicated this by saying: S. I. 5. : “Education in our education faculties should be more practical. I think we learn just theory, there is no practice on teaching during our education.” Most of the teachers suggested that pre-school education should be compulsory and start at age of five. They also empasized teachers’ prestige to improve their social status. Conclusion We highlighted the importance of quality in education. We can say that there is no crucial difference between the teachers’ and prospective teachers’ Eda Erdem, Özcan Demirel 1477 opinions. The common and main idea between the participants is new program that should be taken into consideration in the implememntation phase in schools by both administrators and teachers. The other major point is quality of education needs qualitative teachers. We would like to state if the teacher improves himself in every respect, he can reflect it to his professional life and teaching career. References Dapzury Valenzuela Pallavi Shrivastava Interview as a Method for Qualitative Research http://www.public.asu.edu/~kroel/www500/Interview%20Fri .pdf European report on the quality of school education (2000). Sixteen quality indicators Report based on the work of, The working committee On quality indicators (1), Hanushek, E. A. and Wößmann L. (2007). The Role of Education Quality in Economic Growth. Policy Research Working Paper 4122. Washington D.C.: World Bank. Kvale, Steinar (1996). Interviews An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing, Sage Publications. Marshall C. & G. B. Rossman (1999). Designing Qualitative Research 3rd edit. Sage Publications, USA. McNamara, C. (1999). General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews, Minnesota. Yin C. C. & W. M. Tam (1997). Multi-models of quality in education Quality Assurance in Education 5, 1, p. (22 – 31). http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php URL_ID=27542&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html The Point of Views of the Students towards Tourism Profession Azize Tunç Hussein, Nevin Şanlıer, Gazi University – Turkey Abstract Tourism in the matter of employment and staff’s circulation is one of the foremost sectors. In the sector of a 15 million employed persons and every year tens of opened establishments, the accelerating of appointments and descending the promotions from 3 years to 1.5 year, is causing continual staff need in the suppositions. In tourism sector with its high tempo the high quality and pleasant personnel is the most important factor for the management to win superiority over their rivals. Because of all these features in the sector it is not easy to find the trained staff from sale to the personnel who will serve. The number of the graduated from the vocational high school of tourism is not enough to respond the demand of sector .As for the graduated from the high education they do not want to work in the subgraded positions of sector that needs. Here it is! because of this for overcoming the appearing personnel’s difficulties a lot of tourism establishments, provides possibility of work in its structure by educating those who did not get education or who needs education. Nowadays tourism gradually gained the features of an important mass movement. So it became a sector that interests directly or indirectly every section in societies. Tourism with its gained developments in both international and national levels, investments and improving the business’ capacity, creativity for income, provider of foreign Money, opener of employment fields has gained an effective attribute of social and cultural life. In the development of this much important sector the dynamic and continuity of the activities of education is a necessity. In the development of the section there is a big responsibility over the education associations that educate the staff .Because of this, study was planned to fix the point of view of the vocational high schools, colleges and faculties’ last year students towards tourism’s profession. The demographic information 1480 The Point of Views of the Students towards Tourism Profession of students and their point of view towards tourism’s profession were gathered by the method of questionnaire. Key words: Student, tourism, the point of view towards profession. Introduction Tourism industry is defined as the whole in which people with common interests take place in economic facilities and they offer tourism service. The production of tourism services and goods and the existence of the establishments that produce these goods and services is definitely dependent upon the activities of tourism and the outcomes are oriented to satisfy the emerging needs with the rise of tourism (Uçkun,2004;30-31). With increasingly comprehensive and sophisticated nature parallel to the development of tourism and changing requests, expectations and needs, tourism establishments inevitably take their share from these developments. On the other hand, tourism establishments are distinguished from other establishments operating in other sectors due to its nature. Especially, the principal element that offers service is human kind in accommodation and food and beverage establishments. Hence, the biggest cost item is naturally personnel expenses. Therefore, at times, establishments prefer to make some personnel redundant. Besides, establishments state that they do not need so many personnel due to the all-inclusive system. On the other hand, since good command of a foreign language is of essential significance in the sector, the field of education may not be as important as the good command of a foreign language. Tourism establishments, especially those of accommodation establishments, operate 24 hours seven days of the week. In order for other people to have rest and to entertain, employees at such establishments have to work continuously (Uçkun,2004;32-33). Because of all these features, youths receiving tourism education are faced with challenges in their work life. This study was carried out in order to find out the point of view of those receiving tourism educations towards tourism profession. Method This study was carried out in order to find out the point of views of those receiving tourism educations in Ankara province at faculty, vocational higher schools and tourism high schools. The age of the participants varied between 15 and 26 and the population of the study comprised 621 students, 409 male 212 female. As a result of the literature study, a questionnaire form was prepared and applied in order to measure the point of views the students together with their demographic information. The questions in the questionnaire form were pilot- Azize Tunç Hussein, Nevin Şanlıer 1481 tested and the questions not comprehended were revised and necessary corrections were performed. The questions, in total 23, were prepared in 5-point Likert scale. The scale is rated as “definitely disagree=1”, “disagree=2”, “not certain=3”, “agree=4”, “definitely agree=5” and the questions featuring negative statements were reverse-scored. As a result of the reliability analysis of the questionnaire Cronbach Alpha coefficient was found to be “0.8910”, which indicates that the scale has an acceptable Cronbach Alpha coefficient. In the analysis of the data SPSS 15.0 software was employed. In the analysis of the demographic information and determining the point of views of the students towards tourism profession, figures and percentages were taken into account. In the comparison of the views by sex, age, type of school and departments, using arithmetic average and standard deviation, t-test and ANOVA analysis were applied for the fitting data. For each analysis, the level of significance was set as 0.05. Findings Obtained 1. Findings related to demographic information of the participants. Table 1 reports the data related to the demographic information of the participants. According to the findings, within the scope of the study, 65.9% of the participants are male, 34.1% female and 48.1% of the participants are between 18–20years of age, 17.1% of them are 15–17 years of age, 29.1% of them are 21-23 years of age and 5.7% of them are 24-16 years of age. Besides, 27.1% of the participants receive education at faculties, 35.9% of them at Vocational Higher Schools, and 37.0% of them at Vocational High Schools. The participants are students mainly at the departments of accommodation managements (37.2%), food and beverage services (28.5%), and travel agency management (23.0%) 1482 The Point of Views of the Students towards Tourism Profession Table 1: Demographic Features of the Participants (n=621) Demographic Features Sex Age f % Male 409 65.9 Female 212 34.1 15-17 106 17.1 18-20 299 48.1 21-23 181 29.1 24-26 35 5.7 Faculty of Tourism and Commerce Education 168 27.1 233 35.9 School Type Tourism-Hotel Management Vocational Higher School Department Tourism-Hotel Management Vocational High School 230 37.0 Food-Beverage 177 28.5 Hospitality and Travel Services 70 11.3 Hospitality Management 231 37.2 Travel Agency Management 143 23.0 2. Findings Related to the Points of Views of the Participants towards Tourism Profession Table 2 presents the findings related to the points of views of the participants towards tourism profession 1483 Azize Tunç Hussein, Nevin Şanlıer Statements Definitely Disagree Disagree Not Certain Agree Definitely Agree Table 2: Percentages of the points of views of the participants towards tourism profession I will be employed at tourism sector upon graduation 32.6 19.6 29.3 7.7 10.8 I cannot be employed at this sector for a long time 20.5 20.5 25.0 18.5 15.5 There is nothing much in making a career in tourism sector for me 38.7 32.5 11.6 10.1 7.1 I am thinking of building a career at a different industry 19.8 21.9 29.0 17.7 11.6 It was a mistake to have chosen this profession 38.8 20.5 16.1 10.3 14.3 To be employed at tourism sector is not very much respected in the society 28.3 26.9 11.8 20.3 12.7 To be employed at tourism sector is perceived as working as a waiter 15.0 17.1 9.5 32.8 25.6 I sometimes hesitate to say I am employed at tourism sector 38.3 29.0 10.0 14.5 8.2 Payment at tourism sector is low at many branches 13.2 23.4 13.5 29.4 20.5 Additional income other than wage (premium, bonus, transport etc…) is not enough 9.3 18.0 21.1 31.8 19.8 Wage of many branches at tourism sector is not enough to lead a comfortable life 10.0 17.9 18.5 32.7 20.9 Work hours at tourism sector are not regular 7.4 8.2 6.6 31.2 46.6 It is difficult to find a permanent job at tourism sector due to seasonality 9.0 16.7 12.9 34.2 27.2 Job assurance at tourism sector is low 9.8 17.7 17.6 31.9 23.0 Work atmosphere at tourism sector is stressful 7.1 7.7 10.1 36.5 38.6 Work hours at tourism sector are very long 5.3 8.9 13.4 38.4 34.0 1484 Definitely Disagree Disagree Not Certain Agree Definitely Agree The Point of Views of the Students towards Tourism Profession Jobs at tourism sector are very tiring 3.7 7.9 11.9 42.1 34.4 Education level of the employees is not taken into consideration related to the decisions on promotion 17.2 19.5 15.9 26.6 20.8 Promotions are not performed according to merit 14.3 15.5 30.1 26.6 13.5 Promotion opportunities at tourism sector are limited 9.0 19.8 29.8 27.7 13.7 Promotion of the employees with no acquaintance is difficult 11.3 17.1 28.2 24.6 18.8 Experience of the employees is not taken into account when it comes to promotion 25.3 29.3 20.6 12.4 12.4 Statements When the opinions of the students receiving tourism education within the scope of the study, it is seen that 52.2% of the students state that they do not agree on the statement that they will be employed at tourism sector upon graduation and 41% of them state that they do not agree on the statement that they cannot be employed at tourism sector for a long time 71.2 % of the students state that they do not agree on the statement that there is nothing much in building a career in tourism sector for them, whereas 31.7 % of the students state that they do not agree on the statement that they are thinking of building a career at a different industry 59.3 % of the students state that they do not agree on the statement that it was a mistake to have chosen this profession, while 55.2 % of the students state that they do not agree on the statement that to be employed at tourism sector is not very much respected in the society. On the other hand, 58.4 % of the students state that they do agree on the statement that to be employed at tourism sector is perceived as working as a waiter While 67.3% of the students state that I do not hesitate to say they are employed at tourism sector, 49.9% of them state that payment at tourism sector is low. Besides, the percentage of the opinions supporting that additional income other than wage (premium, bonus, transport etc…) is not enough is considerably high ( 49.9 %). The percentage of those stating work hours at tourism sector are not regular is 51.6%. the percentage of those stating it is difficult to find a permanent job at Azize Tunç Hussein, Nevin Şanlıer 1485 tourism sector due to seasonality is 61.4%. Therefore, 54.9 of the students believe that job assurance at tourism sector is low. Most of the students agree that working at tourism sector is stressful (75.1%) and jobs are tiring (76.5%). On the other hand, 47.4% of the students state that education level of the employees is not taken into consideration related to the decisions on promotion, 40.1% state that promotions are not performed according to merit. What’s more, 41.4% of the students are of the opinion that promotion opportunities at tourism sector are limited. The belief that promotion of the employees with no acquaintance is difficult is very common among the students (43.4%), which is a matter of widespread complaint in other business branches. Despite all these thoughts, a majority of the students (52.6%) state that experience of the employees is taken into account when it comes to promotion. 3. Findings on the comparison of sex, age, school type and department of the participants Within the scope of the study, Table 3 reports results of the t-test and ANOVA analysis on the findings on the comparison of sex, age, school type and department of the participants 1486 The Point of Views of the Students towards Tourism Profession Table 3: Results of the t-test and ANOVA analysis on the findings on the comparison of sex, age, school type and department of the participants Demographic Features Sex n Arit. Av. s.d. Male 409 3.06 0.73 Female 212 3.18 0.62 t=1.983 p=0.045 15-17 106 2.89 0.75 18-20 299 3.00 0.66 21-23 181 3.36 0.63 24-266 35 3.29 0.73 168 3.45 0.59 Tourism-Hotel Management Vocational School Type Higher School 223 2.95 0.59 Tourism-Hotel Management Vocational High School 230 2.99 0.78 Age F=11.529 p=0.000 Faculty of Tourism and Commerce Education F=31.839 p=0.000 Department Food-Beverage 177 2.92 0.70 Hospitality and Travel Services 70 3.01 0.72 Hospitality Management 231 3.11 0.69 Travel Agency Management 143 3.35 0.62 F=8.352 p=0.000 According to the data given in Table 3, point of views of the students towards tourism profession is statistically significant by sex (p<0.005). As seen from the arithmetic average in Table 3, female students (3.18±0.62) look on the tourism profession more positively compared to male students (3.06±0.73). The results of the ANOVA test, performed to test whether the point of views of the students differ by age, indicates test point of views of the students by age are statistically significant (t: 1.983. p<0.05). It is understood that as the age goes up, a positive point of view become widespread among the student. The points of the students (2.99±0.78) at vocational high school are lower than those at faculties (3.45±0.59) and higher than those at vocational higher schools (2.95±0.59). This difference is statistically significant (F: 31.839. p<0.05). Azize Tunç Hussein, Nevin Şanlıer 1487 Besides, the points of students at departments of travel management (3.35±0.68) and hospitality management (3.11±0.69) are higher than the students from the other departments (F: 8.352 p< 0.05). Result and Suggestions When the points of the students receiving tourism education towards tourism profession are examined, a majority of the students state they do not want to be employed at tourism sector, while they state that they agree on working at tourism sector for a long time, which can be commented as an obligation since they received education in this field. It is a good point that a majority of the students are of the opinion that there are many benefits in building a career at tourism sector. This suggests that even though they do not want to be employed at tourism sector, they accepted tourism as a profession, hence they think about making progress at tourism sector. It is such that since they received in this field, they do not want to build a career at a different sector. It is a good point that a majority of the students are not of the opinion that it was a mistake to have chosen tourism profession. On the other hand, they do not agree on the statement that to be employed at tourism sector is not respected. However, they are of the opinion that being employed at tourism sector is perceived as working as a waiter. Therefore, people should be made conscious about this in the society. On the other hand, students state that they do not hesitate to say they will build a career at tourism sector. When the views of the working conditions of the sector are taken into consideration, we come up with the following portrait. A majority of the students are of the opinion that; - Wages are low at tourism sector, Additional incomes (premiums, bonus, etc…) are not sufficient, Working hours are irregular, The difficulty of finding a permanent job due to the seasonality of tourism Job assurance is low at tourism sector Being employed at tourism sector is stressful, work hours are long and jobs are tiring On the other hand; they also think that - Education level of the employees is not taken into consideration related to the decisions on promotion, Promotions are not performed according to merit, Promotion opportunities at tourism sector are limited. 1488 The Point of Views of the Students towards Tourism Profession Despite all these thoughts, it is a good point that students state that experience of the employees is not taken into account when it comes to promotion When the point of views of the students and their sexes are examined, it is seen that female students look on the tourism profession more positively compared to male students. On the other hand, another important result of the study is that as the age goes up, a positive point of view become widespread among the student. Hence, the dominant point of view at high schools can change as they move on to higher school and tourism is regarded as a profession to build a career. It is natural that those aged 15-18 years of age, performing their internships can be influenced by what they experience on account of their age. Here, of course, the biggest responsibility is on the shoulders of the sector. For the sake of not losing those employed at the sector for years, and for the sake of using the resources efficiently, the sector leaders should behave reasonably and intensively on such issues as employing, waging, motivation and promotion, etc… besides, in order for the society to change their perspectives on tourism business, both tourism institutions and public institutions have a lot of tasks to perform. The Right to Education as One of the Fundamental Human Rights (The Case of Albania) Ermonela Ruspi, “Eqrem Çabej” University of Gjirokastra – Albania Abstract This paper focuses on the topic of human rights, which is the main field of study of judicial and historical sciences. The significant changes that took place in the early ’90-ies are an important part of this study, because Albania went through a long and almost half – century rule of dictatorial regime, a system that denied freedom and human rights to the Albanian citizens. In fact, the study of human rights in this paper is concentrated on the education right, which falls under the group economic, social and cultural rights in the Albanian constitution of 1998. The right is analyzed even before this period in order to give a better understanding of the beginning of acknowledgment and application as well as the evolution of this right. A special importance is given to the present situation of the education right in Albania, the measures taken by the state institutions for its best application in practice. Key words: Human rights, educational right, constitution. Reflection of the Education Right in the Communist Period (Constitution of 1946, 1976) After World War II, the power in Albania was taken by the communists who in 14th of May 1946 approved the Constitution of the Popular Republic of Albania, a Constitution of a socialist kind. A special chapter of the Constitution (chapter III) refers to the rights and obligations of the citizens45 where 45 High Court of the Popular Republic of Albania. (1975). Development of the socialist legislation in the Popular Republic of Albania. Tirana. 1490 The Right to Education as One of the Fundamental Human Rights (The Case of Albania) education46 right is included. The belonging article sanctioned the permission of private schools in parallel with the public schools whose activity would be under the control of the state and the laic nature of the Albanian education system. Also the elementary education was compulsory and free, a phenomenon that would stimulate school frequency. As a support to the Constitution, in August 1946, the law of popular education reform was approved. A wide campaign against analphabetism was started. Also a wide program was applied in order to build elementary schools, high schools and technical institutes47 in each town and village. Soon enough a new system of public elementary schools that were compulsory and free of charge, was built. In September 1949 a new law of education was approved, which obliged all citizens from the age of 12 up to 40 to learn how to read and write, otherwise they would be punished with one month of corrective work or fines48. The framework of the campaign against analphabetism was increased to a high rate reaching even the most distant countries of Albania. In this period the number of people who knew how to read and write had greatly increased if compared to the period before World War II. Despite the positive results in this direction, the pursuit of a totalitarian policy by the communist leaders gave way to the education right to gradually fall under restriction. Albania by the end of the ’60-ies started “The ideological and cultural revolution” which influenced the education system. A revolutionary reform was undertaken which lead to the militarization of schools. Together with the school plan which occupied something above the 50% of pupils’ and students’ time, the rest of the time was dedicated to productive military and physical practices. New school texts were also prepared, where deviations of the historical facts and different interpretations in accordance with the in-power political preferences were not to lack49. As a result of attending a complete isolating policy, as the only way left to the communist leaders in order to continue to rule, in 28 December 1976, the new Constitution was approved. This document was highly politicized and less similar to a real constitution. In reality the achievements in the field of education could have been over-praised if the educational program had not politically aimed to the concentration of power in the communist’s hands. They reached to the point of making propaganda that music and literature works of art 46 Albanian Assembly. (1946). Constitution of Albania, Article 6. Zavalini, T., (1998). History of Albania. Tirana, p. 354. 48 Smirnova, N., (2004). History of Albania throughout the XX-eth Century. Tirana , p. 325. 49 Smirnova, N., (2004). History of Albania throughout the XX-eth Century. Tirana , p. 389. 47 Ermonela Ruspi 1491 should stimulate the workers to work harder in order to reach the economic plan objectives. The material progress was the main goal of the communist society and that was why education same as other fields, had to be subdued. Education based on the Marxist – Leninist dogmas was irreconcilable not only to the modern science discoveries, but also to the Albanian national historical facts by deforming or negating them from time to time. Lenin’s and Stalin’s works of art together with other pieces of Russian writers belonging to the Bolshevik Party were transformed into compulsory reading subjects for the Albanians. Two new text books with political content such as “Moral and political education” and “Elementary knowledge of Marxism-Leninism” were considered as the basic subjects of the revolutionary teaching process. Meanwhile, plenty works of art belonging to national writers transmitting messages of freedom and democracy, were prohibited to read both at schools and privately50. As far as the national minority’s right to education during that period was concerned, there was no legal act to adjust these relations in this aspect, apart from what was featured in the Constitution. So everything was a practical reality. It is true that minorities have never been subject to any special discrimination. They have suffered the usual suppression of the regime in the same way with the rest of the population. In most of the places where these minorities were situated, was extended a complete elementary school system where the lesson was held in their mother tongue, whereas people belonging to these minorities but who lived in other towns did not have the same chance. There was also a class in the pedagogical high school in the town of Gjirokastra (a town situated in south Albania containing Greek minorities) and a department in the High Institute preparing teachers of this language situated in the same city51. Changes in the Constitutional Right of Education after the ’90-ies. Its Comparison To the International Acts of Human Rights. The beginning of the ’90-ies was accompanied with deep economic and political changes of a democratic character. In April 1991 the constitution of 1976 was abrogated and the law over “The main constitutional dispositions” was approved, which held the status of a temporary constitution and created the outlines of a parliamentary republic and division of powers. In this law as well as in the law over “The basic rights and freedoms of humans” of 1993, we can find ratified the right to education and that of minority protection. 50 Zavalini, T., (1998). History of Albania. Tirana, p. 355-356. Beja, A. (1996). Minorities’ educational rights in Albania. “Human rights” journal, 2, (11-25). 51 1492 The Right to Education as One of the Fundamental Human Rights (The Case of Albania) All legal dispositions are compiled in accordance with the international documents through the engagement of the Albanian state to provide to minorities the right to get an education in their mother language, in the compilation of school texts with regard to their history and culture. After the year 1990 minority rights in Albania, especially the Greek one, were greatly improved. In 1991 teaching and learning in the Greek language was expanded in Saranda and Delvina (towns in South Albania containing Greek minorities) and later, in 1992 it was also expanded in Gjirokastra. In about 7 towns and villages schools were opened where pupils were taught in Greek from the first class up to the 8th class. The approval and declaration of the Constitution of the Republic of Albania in 28 November 1998, was another important stage in the democratization process of our country. The right to education is guaranteed by article 57 of the Constitution. This article is compiled in accordance with article 2 of Protocol number 1 subjoined to the European Convent. It presents a more detailed formulation of this issue by treating in it all the possible problems that can be faced. In it, it is sanctioned that: “Everyone has the right to education; The compulsory school education is specified by law; The general public high school education is opened to everyone; The general professional high school and higher education can only be confined based on efficiency criteria; Compulsory education and general high school education in public schools is free of charge; Learners and students can be educated even in non public schools of all levels, which are created and function in accordance with the inpower laws; The autonomy of higher education institutions and the academic freedom are granted by law. Based on the article 2 of the Protocol Nr. 1, all states can act freely as far as the education system construction is concerned. The right to be educated according to this article does not contain pre-arranged conditions in relation to issues such as the education starting age, the level to which education is compulsory, the argument whether education should be free of charge or on fee basis, the way in which problems in other schools will be arranged, etc. As we a can see from the containment of article 57, it gives solutions to some of the problems but these problems and questions are increasing in a more general plan, which is why the Constitution is referring to laws to define more concrete issues. The second point of article 57 sanctions the compulsory education by putting into evidence the ambiguous character of this right that is simultaneously presented as a positive and as a negative freedom and as a dutyright52. Parents are the ones that should take their children to schools or 52 Anastasi, A., (2004). The constitutional right. Tirana, p. 119. Ermonela Ruspi 1493 otherwise they will be penalized. They are given the right to choose the school that they want for their children (religious, laic, public, private, general or professional) in accordance with their religious or philosophical beliefs as specified in article 2 of Protocol 1, and no one has the right to judge their choices. In article 57/6 it is specified the pluralist character of education by giving way not only to the development of public education but also to the private one which can be created in all levels. It is a fact that in our days a wide net of private schools is constructed which includes all three levels of elementary education, high school education and higher education. According to the numbers presented by the Ministry of Education for the year 2006, registration in high schools (age 15 – 18) both for boys and girls was 55% while attendance of elementary school (age 6 – 14) was over 94%53. For kids who live in poverty, school attendance is a short-term possibility that goes from 4 up to 9 years. While other children learn, a considerable number of children belonging to poor families have to work in order to provide for their families. This number is even higher in the rural areas. According to a study presented by UNICEF, though the abandonment of the compulsory education is the same for boys and girls, the number of girls from rural areas abandoning school as a result of the mentality “the gained knowledge is more than enough for them” is 9 times higher than the boys54. From the gathered data it also results that the level of frequency of general high schools and the universities, from children of poor families is lower than that of children belonging to richer families55. In article 57 it is guaranteed the autonomy of higher education institutions as well as the academic freedom. Practically this autonomy is manifested in two aspects: In the outer aspect according to which universities are allowed to have relations and to cooperate through mechanisms of regional, national or international character with other institutions of higher education. In the inner aspect the autonomy is related to the freedom of the academic staff, with the students’ rights as well as the participation of university units in the life of the institution56. In exertion of the constitution it is approved the law nr. 9741 date 21. 05. 2007 “For the Higher Education in the Republic of Albania” changed 53 American Department Report. (2007).Yearly report of human rights, Albania. Web site: http://www.albanian.tirana.usembassy.gov. 54 UNICEF. (2007). Women and children in Albania. Double cost of inequality and gender discrimination among women and children. 55 UNICEF. (2007). Women and children in Albania. Double cost of inequality and gender discrimination among women and children. 56 Anastasi, A., (2004). The constitutional right. Tirana, p. 124-125. 1494 The Right to Education as One of the Fundamental Human Rights (The Case of Albania) through the Law 9832 date 12. 11. 2007. This law is also compiled in accordance with the intervention platform of the adequacy of the Albanian system to the European one based on the standards of the Bologna Declaration that Albania signed officially in September 2003. Article 57 where the right to education is determined is related to article 20 of the Constitution that expressively predicts the minorities’ right to language, where it is said “People belonging to national minorities have the right to freely express without being forbidden or obliged their ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic belonging. They are provided the right to protect and develop them, to learn and to be taught in their mother tongue”. Equal rights for all are also provided by the legislation in the field of education. Article 3 of Law 7952, date 21. 06. 1995 “For the pre-university system” changed according to the law 8387 date 30. 07. 1998 guarantees equal rights for all citizens ‘To be educated in all levels of education defined by this law, independently of their social estate, nationality, sex, religion, political beliefs, health situation and economic level”. It is made possible with the belonging sub-legal act the opening of schools in the respective mother tongue in the regions inhabited by the Greek minority in South out of the Greek zone57. The Ministry of Education and Sciences has approved plans and teaching programs, which aim that the minority students are given the possibility to gain knowledge over the culture and the history of their country. Apart from the school texts, the number of books published related to the literature of the minorities such as Greek and Macedonian is increasing rapidly. A number of projects organized by the Albanian government in different towns of our country aim to improve the participation and the integration in schools of children from Rom families. These projects that include the organizing of different cultural and sportive activities with the participation of both Albanian and Rom children, have also contributed in the promotion of respect, feelings of friendship and cooperation. Some Conclusions and Measures Recommended Undertaking for the Improvement of the Right to Education The Albanian state organisms during these last years have shown that they consider education as their priority. Measures have been undertaken in the exertion of this policy, which includes a twofold plan: on one side the legal standards and on the other side the actions undertaken in the terrain for their completion. We can mention as positive steps the undertake of a number of 57 American Department Report. (2007).Yearly report of human rights, Albania. Web site: http://www.albanian.tirana.usembassy.gov. Ermonela Ruspi 1495 reforms, of different projects, of salary increase for teachers and pedagogues, the offering of low interest rate loans for students etc. In general the academic freedom is exerted without special restrictions and limitations. On the other side, it is necessary to continually make efforts to reform the education system and improve its quality. As a negative phenomenon, we can see the abandonment of compulsory education or even of high school education form a considerable number of children. Although the in-power legal acts predict fines for parents in case of incompletion of compulsory education form their children, in practice we lack the right mechanisms to collect these fines. Some of the ways that would improve the attendance and non-abandonment of compulsory education and high school education would be: 1- Partial or total reimbursement of education expenditures. (Buying books and other didactical equipments or urging to school participation through financial aid support for poor families). 2- Quality improvement of teaching through the recruitment of teachers and competent administrative staff, programs for training of teachers and their economic stimulation, the offering of didactic materials and equipments, building and maintenance of schools. 3- Minimizing the distances to school through offering a comfortable way of transportation (maybe even free of charge) both for teachers and for pupils in the distant zones from schools. Despite the positive steps forward the minority education issue in their mother tongue deserves continuous attention, so it’s necessary more active investment by the Albanian government. Rom children are highly endangered, as they point a higher rate of school abandonment58. While the government has completed a National strategy for the improvement of the living conditions of the Rom families the Edification number 6 date 29. 03. 2006 has come to power “For the registration in schools of Rom pupils which have not been equipped with a birth certificate” in order to lead them towards education. References Anastasi, A., (2004). The constitutional right. Tirana. 58 Lipponen, O., (2004). The report in the permanent council. The organization of security and cooperation in Europe. The presence in Albania. Web site: http://wwwosce.org/item. 1496 The Right to Education as One of the Fundamental Human Rights (The Case of Albania) Beja, A. (1996). Minorities’ educational rights in Albania. “Human rights” journal , 2, (11-25). UNICEF. (2007). Women and children in Albania. Double cost of inequality and gender discrimination among women and children. Web site: http://www.unicef.org/albania. Albanian Assembly. (1946, 1976, 1998). Constitutions of Albania. Lipponen, O., (2004). The report in the permanent council. The organization of security and cooperation in Europe. The presence in Albania. Web site: http://www.osce.org/item. American Department Report. (2007).Yearly report of human rights, Albania. Web site: http://www.albanian.tirana.usembassy.gov. Smirnova, N., (2004). History of Albania throughout the XX-eth Century. Tirana. Zavalini, T., (1998). History of Albania. Tirana. High Court of the Popular Republic of Albania. (1975). Development of the socialist legislation in the Popular Republic of Albania. Tirana. The Strategies and the Methods Used in the Subject of Geography for the Treatment of Natural Heritage Gentian Ruspi, “Eqrem Çabej” University, Gjirokastra – Albania Abstract The social-economic and political changes in Albania after the year 1990 have had their impact on the necessity for the reformation of the educational system. The reformation of the content has been considered as the key to the success of this reformation. The idea of the alternative textbooks and their application these recent years have brought about a higher quality of these textbooks in their content and concept, as well as in the methods of their teaching. Qualitative reformation has also been made in the texts of geography. Apart from much geographical knowledge developed previously, these texts have also included in their content the treatment of new concepts, like those on natural heritage. The organization of the class hour by the teacher, the pursue of proper teaching strategies and methods plays an important role in the digestion of proper knowledge, which serve for the appropriate acquaintance and evaluation by the young generation for the properties with special natural values. Key words: Natural heritage, alternative texts, environmental education. The Evolution of the Learning Process in Geography The organization forms of the teaching process have changed historically. They have been adapted to certain interests and aims of the society in general, or of various social groups. The teaching and education goals realized through the learning of geography can be achieved in various forms of the organization of the teaching process. Geography is a powerful means for the enhancement of the education of individuals and plays an important role in the international education, in the environmental education and in the economic-social development. The learning process of geography, as with all other subjects taught at school, aims to provide the pupils with the basic knowledge that will serve them during their life. The 1498 The Strategies and the Methods Used in the Subject of Geography teachers of geography, the pedagogues and the scholars have made continuous attempts for the improvement of the teaching methods in the subject of geography so that the new knowledge is not transmitted to the pupils according to ready-made schemes, instead they should be based on result yielding methods. In its beginnings, the Albanian school was based on the dogmatic learning and gradually it would later pass on to the explanatory learning, which had to do with the explanation of the knowledge by the teacher and their acquisition and reproduction by the pupils, and in the recent years it is based on the creative learning, the kernel of which is the idea that the pupil becomes part of the lesson by giving his opinion about the issues treated in the teaching program, not only based on the knowledge provided by the teacher or the textbook, but also ensuring additional information from other sources. After the changes that happened in Albania after the years ’90, school was involved in a process of general reformation aiming at the introduction of new contemporary concepts and practices. The foundation of this change was the reaffirmation of some principles expressed very early by great teachers and pedagogues, which are widely applied today in the modern school, like: those for the implementation of the “research and discovery school”, in the essence of which stands the stimulation of the independent research work of the pupils; those for the reformatting of the methods of logic acquisition in the system of the work of geography learning; those for the interrelationships between the teacher and the pupil in the process of the learning of geography etc. The teachers of geography, in the function of the research, the discovery and the logic digestion of knowledge on the part of the pupils, have started to reevaluate such forms as the direct observations on the terrain, the works on the geographical site, excursions, creative tasks, but also apply such new forms, like: the use of audio video means; the use of computer programs; the use of additional information from other auxiliary sources; the use of alternative textbooks, etc. the idea of alternative texts and their application these last years have brought about a higher level of the quality of the texts in their content and their concepts, as well as in the methods used for their teaching. Now the pupils can choose themselves the text best suited to them in the process of geographic knowledge learning. These texts, apart from the traditional geographical knowledge, contain also knowledge never developed before. The Importance and the Values of the Treatment of Natural Heritage in the Textbooks of Geography The preparatory committee of the UNO conference for the environment and development held in Geneva on March 18, 1991, emphasized that the environmental education and development, in all levels and for all the people, is Gentian Ruspi 1499 the key to ensuring a sustainable development of the world. “The more the knowledge and the information become property of the educated people able to understand information, the more the chances that the damages of the environment decrease are and the more the problems of the future become foreseeable. As a result, the primary necessity for all the countries, especially the developed ones, is the strengthening of the whole education system as a preliminary condition in the environmental education and development”. For this, the school geography makes a great contribution, since it is one of the subjects that dedicates a considerable part to the environmental education and the treatment of the natural occurrences and phenomena. Environmental problems and the development of the branches of economy in harmony with the nature and the environment, as in the case of tourism, are among the issues that are mostly considered in many countries of the world. In Albania, the improvement of the economic situation and the priority dedicated to it in the state policies of the development of tourism has increased the interest of the society in the acquaintance and reevaluation of natural riches. Scholars engaged in the publication of the texts of geography, seeing the importance of the geographical – natural offer in the development of tourism, have also included the treatment of the knowledge about natural and cultural heritage. Heritage is a value of the natural environment, and as such, it is a natural and spiritual value, thus a cultural one as well. The knowledge and proper evaluation of the heritage in general, both natural and cultural, is one of the possibilities for its tourist exploitation. This paper treats the importance and necessity of the recognition by the young generation and its education for the protection and propaganda of the values of natural heritage, since the risks this heritage are exposed to be greater in proportion with the cultural heritage. Natural heritage comprises objects, landscapes, ecosystems, and habitats of special, rare or unique values, endemic relics or those vulnerable to disappearance. As such, they have great scientific, cultural, didactic and touristic importance. All these objects, landscapes, habitats and ecosystems are nominated as special natural property, conditioned by the natural laws only, while the human activity is only exercised to protect them and identify their values, which are expressed in the very rich diversity and in the very special landscape. For the values the natural heritage represents on an international scale, it constitutes a “World Heritage” and is protected by the world heritage convention. For the very risks the natural heritage is confronted with because of the activity of the people, based on the policies and strategies defined by the UNESCO for the protection of natural heritage, each state compiles the policies and the strategies for the evaluation, protection and management of its national heritage. For this purpose, through official and legal acts, the spaces and objects 1500 The Strategies and the Methods Used in the Subject of Geography of special values are given the status “protected area”. This is made in order to identify, protect and use these inherited values for scientific and economic purposes and to pass them on to the future generations. A protected area is called the land, water or land and water space of special values and protected by law, special rules, that restrict the presence of the activity of men by managing it through scientific methods. Part of the policies and strategies for the evaluation, protection and management of its national heritage is also the education system. Education makes a great contribution in the acquaintance and education of the new generation with the values of the natural heritage. In addition, this heritage can be used in the scientific researches or as a laboratory for getting to know the pupils with some of the natural occurrences they have come across in their textbooks or in the teachers’ explanations in class. So, if a teacher has treated in class a topic related to the activity of underground karstic waters, it would be more useful for the better understanding of the lesson if the pupils could visit a cave where natural occurrences have acted by leaving traces of the activity of underground waters. In this moment created by nature for thousands of years, like the case of such a cave, the pupils would get knowledge helping the acquisition of the knowledge received at school, but the teachers can use such case to inform the pupils about the touristic values of such special forms created in this cave, and enhance in them the feeling that these riches must be protected. Tourists are interested in knowing these curiosities of nature, so they visit them with pleasure by also paying a tax for such visits. If the values of natural heritage are maintained, protected, studied carefully, defined and emphasized, then they may become a good source of financial income. According to the UNESCO-s in 2008, on the list of World Heritage there exist 878 sites, of which: 678 are cultural, 174 natural and 26 mixed properties, in 145 states59. Italy is home to the greatest number of World Heritage Sites to date with 43 sites inscribed to the list. UNESCO references each World Heritage Site with an identification number; but new inscriptions often include previous sites now listed as part of larger descriptions. As a result, the identification numbers exceed 1200 even though there are fewer on the list. The studies made in Albania have revealed these values of the natural heritage divided according to these categories: 4 strictly natural scientific sanctuaries, 13 national parks, 697 natural monuments, 24 managed natural sanctuaries, 6 protected landscapes, 4 protected zones of managed resources. All 59 UNESCO. (2008). World http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ . Heritage List. Web site: Gentian Ruspi 1501 of these together occupy 284 332 ha or 9,8% of the Albanian territory60. The above data show the importance and the values natural heritage occupies both on an international and on a national basis. The Treatment of Natural Heritage in the Geography Class Hour The learning process in geography is developed in an organized and programmed way. The teacher is the organizer and leader of such process. In order to better realize his tasks as a teacher and educator, he must be a good organizer of the lesson and have clear concepts about the class hour and the peculiarities of the topics treated in the subject of geography. Some of the new topics and concepts finding a wide treatment in the programs and texts of geography are those providing knowledge about the natural and cultural heritage. The methods used in the treatment of the new concepts on the natural heritage in the geography programs and texts include two ways: 1. The treatment of such concepts in a general way, when during the treatment of the topics traditionally developed in the geography lesson is also included the knowledge on natural heritage. 2. The treatment of this knowledge in separate programs and textbooks, when at the disposal of the pupils are put texts of geography treating the knowledge on natural heritage in separate topics, like Geography 361, a textbook presently used by the high school pupils. In many of the themes in the subject of geography can be given knowledge about objects, occurrences or places, which cannot be observed by the pupils because of the distance. Many of the natural occurrences or interesting forms created by them, which may be part of the world natural heritage are difficult to be understood by the pupils; in such cases the teacher is obliged to use audio video means, like sketches, photographs or movies, so that the lesson becomes the most understandable. For instance, if the topic was “wind and the forms created by it”, then the teacher would have to transmit to the pupils knowledge about objects with interesting forms created in nature by erosion, transportation, and the deposition of materials as a result of the wind activity, like the dunes in the deserts, cliffs or woods modeled with attractive forms, etc. In this case, the 60 Qiriazi, P., (2008) “Problems of the world heritage of the Albanian territories and the possibilities of its exploitation for touristic purposes”, Geographical exploration, The Association of the geographers of Kosova, Prishtina, No. 14, Pp. 138. 61 Dollma, M. (2006). Geography 3. Textbook for the high schools. Tirana. Albania. 1502 The Strategies and the Methods Used in the Subject of Geography lesson would be difficult to be understood by the pupils if audio video means were not used. The geography lesson requires the use of methods that enhance the research work of the pupils, which must aim at the collection of the data independently by the pupil or led by the teacher, like: the collection of data from the internet, books or various sources, observations in nature, experiments, questionnaires, excursions, etc. the treatment of the themes on the natural heritage requires the teacher to fulfill the defined objectives within the time unit of the lesson in the classroom, but for the very special character of such topics, he must also use other places found in nature. For a better acquisition of the lessons treating the natural heritage, the teacher can develop practical works, certainly in accordance with the program of the subject of geography. What can the aim of the practical work be? The acquaintance with the values of these categories of protected areas through personal research, group work and observation in terrain, as well as the understanding by the pupils of the importance of the special status a protected area may have. During the practical work the class is divided into groups, to which the teacher assigns a task to work for. Each of the groups must collect information about the values of the protected area. This way they could see directly the habitats, the obvious forms of the relief, the plants, the animals, the woods, etc. and would reinforce the knowledge acquired in the classroom. Excursion enables the teacher to advise and educate the pupils with the rules of visiting and studying a natural protected area. Some of the advice given by the teacher could be: • Walk on the proper paths and be careful to respect the forest life by not walking on the plants or flowers and by not teasing the animals • Throw the rubbish in the dustbins or collect them in plastic bags. • Take care of the fire. • Talks and discussions must be made in a low voice, so that you don’t worry the other visitors. In order to collect more complete and accurate data, the pupils must talk with the persons dealing with the management and monitoring of the protected area. Through notes, observations, photos and drawings, the pupils must discuss in class about the values of the protected areas and the measures they could suggest for their management in the future. For a better digestion of the knowledge by the pupils and in order to arouse their interest on the topics pertaining to the natural heritage, in the geography class hour is recommended: Gentian Ruspi 1503 1. High scientific preparation of the teacher for the lesson. This means that the teacher must have the proper knowledge on natural heritage, and also know the most recent contemporary data and concepts. 2. In addition to the scientific knowledge mentioned above, the teacher must have a high methodical preparation, so that he can apply the appropriate methods in their transmission to the pupils. 3. The creation of a suitable environment, in which communication between the teacher and the pupil can serve the progress of the class hour. 4. The proper use of various sources of information. Apart from the textbook and the word of the teacher, the class hour must be enriched with information received from other sources, thus enhancing the logical thinking and research among the pupils. References Dollma, M. (2006). Geography 3. Textbook for the high schools. Tirana. Albania. UNESCO. (2008). World Heritage List. Website: http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ . IUCN (1994), Guidelines for Protected area management categories. CNPPA with assistance of WCMC. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Kaso, M., (2001) Didactics of Geography, University textbook, Fier, Albania. Mita, N., Dibra, G., Bici, V., Tafani, V., Misia, B., Sinani, M., (1999), Teaching methods, Tirana, Albania. Musai, B., Trëndafili, G., (1996), Aspects of teaching in geography. Form V – VIII, Open Society Foundation Soros. Tirana. Albania. Qiriazi, P., (2008), “Problems of the world heritage of the Albanian territories and the possibilities of its exploitation for touristic purposes”, Geographical exploration, The Association of Geographers of Kosova, Prishtinë, No. 14, Pp. 135-149. The Assembly of Albania, (06.06.2002), The Law of Protected Areas, Nr. 8906. To Investigate the Effect of School Managers’ Ethical Leadership Levels on the Organizational Trust Level Vicdan Altınok, Ercan Yılmaz, Selcuk University – Turkey Abstract The aim of this research is to investigate the effect of school managers’ ethical leadership levels on the organizational trust level. The research was based on the relational search model and the population was consisted of 378.665 teachers working in official schools of Ministry National Education. The sample set of research was consisted of 1.144 female and 1.288 male teachers. The “Ethical Leadership Scale” was used to determine the ethical leadership levels of school managers and the “c was used to determine the organizational trust level of secondary schools. The findings of the research related to explanation of organizational trust by ethical leadership showed that the sensitivity to workers subscale of organizational trust were significantly explained by the environmental ethic, ethic in decision making and communicational ethic subscales of ethical leadership. The trust in manager and communication environment subscales of organizational trust were significantly explained by the communicational ethic, behavioral ethic, ethic in decision making and environmental ethic subscales of ethical leadership. Results also showed that openness to changes subscale of organizational trust was significantly explained by the communicational ethic, ethic in decision making and environmental ethic subscales of ethical leadership. Key words: Ethic, trust, organizational trust, ethical leadership Training workers have an important duty in referring to renewal movements, related to education at schools. Because what is expected from educational workers to do is creativity and describe themselves in a realistic way. There is a positive relation between organizations’ inventorship and innovation, and organizational trust degree. Trust should be part of the organizational climate in 1506 To Investigate the Effect of School Managers’ Ethical Leadership Levels order to increase workers creativity. The organizations and their workers become more creative as long as the trust degree increases (Özçer, 2005:176). The organizational trust should be built and trust degree should be increased in order to be successful in alternation movements of which aim to recover in education which are to be done due to school. Fiduciary relationships cover the teachers to be capable of taking risks, trusting to the other and their low probability of being vulnerability. (Hoy and others 2003) Organizational trust is a result of the relationships of the educational workers at school. However, these relationships must be the part of ethical values. The values on which should be based for a reliable relation are; favor, charity, trust. An organization based on trust; have to be built on the societies which have common ethical values. Because ethical values provide an environment for workers to trust each other mutually, compromise on the subject. (Fukuyama, 1998) These ethical values are important in both in terms of intra-organization workers to trust each other and non-worker people out of the organization to trust in the organization. All the workers of Turkish Public Administration and MEB, to which all workers up; are doing ethical agreements. MEB workers engage to behave due to service needs, to fulfill their duty, based on respect to principles of human rights, transparency, participation, honesty, capability of giving an account, observation of public benefits and ascendancy of law, with no discrimination of language, religion, philosophical belief, political view, race, age, physically disability and sex, and also with not giving chance to behaviors and applications which may block opportunity equality. Workers’ behaving within the context of ethnic values, enables creating low probability of vulnerability. It increases the expectations and the predictabilities of the conditions which may occur. Because of all these; ethical values should be a part of the organization and school manager should know that the biggest responsibility on creating trust are theirs, in the period of organizational trust occurring process. Their first duty is to make the actions which will create the feeling of trust in them. At the same time, the school manager should be eager to help the teachers, the people who give support to the school, families, and students and solve the problems. (Sebring and Bryk, 2000) School managers should authorize the workers, to be in structuring in less control and hierarchy. Also, he/she should provide the work’s being better and create and build environments in which different approaches can be done. For teachers’ trusting to managers, managers should be completely trustful and show it by their behaviors. Managers should behave in the sense of trust and responsibility in their relations between teachers, the people who support the school, families, and students. It shows us that school manager should show off the capability of ethic leadership. Vicdan Altınok, Ercan Yılmaz 1507 Regarding to the theory of ethic leadership, leader’s authority is based on ethic values (Rebore, 2001). According to Wekesser (1995), ethic values which should be in education manager are honesty, trust, goodness, devotion, grace, bravery, generosity, kindness and self-sacrifice. In addition, he/she should state his/her behaviors in the form of being felt them. School manager is the first variable among all characteristics in school. It is expected that this situation is valid for the level of organizational trust in school. School manager’s capability of ethic leadership causes the increase of these expectations. Explanations above explain that trust is an important factor for schools and it is the result of the interaction in association. It is thought that knowing the situation of the ethic leadership and some variable’s affecting the level of organization trust has an important contribution in the area. This research’s aim is to observe the effects of the school manager’s ethic leadership level on the level of organizational trust in schools. Sub-aim Within the context of the research’s aim, the answers of questions above are searched. Are ethic leadership’s subscales (communicational ethic, environmental ethic, ethic in decision, behavioral ethic) able to explain the level of sensibility to workers, trust to manager, communication area and openness to changes in a significant level? Method Tools of Data Collection The information about the Ethic Leadership Scale used in research and Organizational Trust Scale at schools is given below. Ethic Leadership Scale (ELS) Ethic Leadership Scale is enhanced by Yılmaz to modify the level of school managers’ ethic leadership according to the teachers’ point of view. Yılmaz (2005) first uses the quotient of Cronbach Alpha to forecast the trust of Ethic Leadership Scale. At the same time, he calculates Cronbach Alpha consistency quotient for both full scale and subscales individually. Scale’s total trust quotient is calculated in .97. Trust quotient of 4 subscales within themselves are calculated in .95 for communicational ethic, .92 for environmental ethic, .94 for decision In this part, research’s model, creation and sample ; the statistical methods of evaluating the instruments of data collection and collecting data are reported. 1508 To Investigate the Effect of School Managers’ Ethical Leadership Levels Research Model This research is relational dissertation model. Research’s working group is the model of general dissertation. Research’s working group consists of 2432 primary school teachers who are from all regions of Turkey. The number of individuals in the cosmo of the research is enough to create group of examples in terms of statistical in ethic, and .90 for sub-dimension behavioral ethic. (Yılmaz, 2005) Organization Trust Scale at Schools To modify the level of schools’ organizational trust according to teachers’ point of view, Yılmaz (2005) makes a study about legality and trust of Organization Trust Scale at Schools. Yılmaz (2005) first uses the Cronbach Alpha in order to forecast the trust of Organization Trust Scale at Schools. Cronbach Alpha consistency quotient is calculated for both full scale and subscale individually and it is modified as a scale of trust. Scale’s total trust quotient is calculated in 0, 97. Trust quotient of 4 subscales within themselves are calculated in .95 for sensibility of workers, .95 for trust for manager, .75 for modernity and .92 for communicational ambience subscale. Results With the aim of representing ethic Leadership subscales’ sensibility (communicational ethic, environmental ethic, decision in ethic, behavioral ethic) to workers, Regression Analysis is used and the results are given in Table 1. Table 1: ‘’Statistical Diagnosis Which Shows The Effects Of The Level Of Sensibility For The Workers İn Ethic Leadership’s Organizational Trust’s Subscales’’ Variant R2 F p 0,569 801,71 0,000 Ethic Leadership Dimensions β p Environmental Ethic 0,403* 0,000 Making Decision in Ethic 0,178* 0,000 Communicational Ethic 0,161* 0,000 Behavioral Ethic 0.044 0,233 Dependent Variable : Sensibility for workers in organizational trust’s subscale As it is seen in Table 1, Sensibility for workers in organizational trust’s subscale affects the environmental ethic, decision in ethic and communicational ethic. Four variant, belonging to ethic leadership, explains 56 percentage of sensibility for workers in organizational trust’s subscale. However, 1509 Vicdan Altınok, Ercan Yılmaz environmental ethic does not affect in the significant level of worker’s sensibility. Trust in workers, which the organizational ethic’s subscale provides the most effect on environmental ethic, later in successively decision in ethic, and lastly third effect, is communicational ethic. Regression is tested whether ethic leadership’s subscales (communicational ethic, environmental ethic, decision in ethic, behavioral ethic) explain the organizational trust’s manager to trust subscale at schools in significantly or not and results are presented in Table 2. Table 2: ‘The effect of ethic leadership on trust to manager which is the subscale of Ethic leadership organizational trust’ R2 F 0,663 1191,65 Variant p Dimensions β Communicational Ethic Ethic Leadership p 0,385* 0,000 0,000 Behavioral Ethic 0.205* 0,000 Making Decision in Ethic 0,170* 0,000 Environmental Ethic 0.088* 0,003 Dependent Variable: Trust to manager which is the subscale of organizational trust. As it is understood in the table above; communicational ethic, behavioral ethic, decision in ethic, environmental ethic affects the subscale of organizational trust in a significant level. The most effect on trust to manager which is the subscale of organizational trust is communicational ethic. The second effect is behavioral ethic; third one is decision in ethic and lastly fourth one is environmental ethic. Four variant related to ethic leadership explains 66, 3 percentage of the variant occurred by the dimension on trust to manager. Regression is tested whether ethic leadership’s subscales (communicational ethic, environmental ethic, decision in ethic, behavioral ethic) explain the organizational trust’s manager to trust subscale at schools in significantly or not and results are presented in Table 3. Table 3: ‘‘The Effect Of Ethic Leadership On The Level Of Communication Environment Which İs The Sub-Dimension Of Organizational Trust’ Variant R2 F p Dimensions Environmental Ethic Ethic Leadership 0,54 765,09 0,000 Communicational Ethic β p 0.264* 0,000 0.215* 0,000 Making Decision İn Ethic 0.181* 0,000 Behavioral Ethic 0.115* 0,002 Dependent Variable : Communication environment which is the subscale of organization trust 1510 To Investigate the Effect of School Managers’ Ethical Leadership Levels As it is seen in Table 3 Communication environments which is the subscale of organization trust is affected by environmental ethic, communicational ethic, decision in ethic and behavioral ethic. Communication environment which is the subscale of organization trust is mostly affected by environmental ethic. Second effect is communicational ethic. The third one is decision in ethic; fourth one is behavioral ethic. All dimension of ethic leadership generally affected 54 percent of the variant of the communication environment. Regression is tested whether ethic leadership’s subscales (communicational ethic, environmental ethic, decision in ethic, behavioral ethic) explains the subscale of school’s organizational trust’s openness to changes in significantly or not and results are presented in Table 4 Table 4: ‘Ethic Leadership’s Effect on the Subscales of School’s Organizational Trust’s Openness to Changes’ Variant R2 F p Dimensions Communicational Ethic Ethic Leadership 0,447 489,72 0,000 β p 0.301* 0,000 Environmental Ethic 0.286* 0,000 Making Decision İn Ethic 0.102* 0,004 Behavioral Ethic 0.007 0,868 Dependent Variable: Openness to changes, the subscale of organizational trust. As it is seen in the table, openness to changes which is the subscale of organizational trust is affected by communicational ethic, environmental ethic, decision in ethic, behavioral ethic. The most effect on openness to changes, subscale of organizational trust is communicational ethic. The second one is environmental ethic; the third one is decision in ethic. Behavioral ethic, the subscale of ethic leadership has no effect on predicting the openness to changes which is the subscale of organizational trust. The variant, which occurs in the dimension of modernity as a whole in ethic leadership, explains 44.7 percentages. Discussions Sensibility to workers which is the subscale of organizational trust is affected by environmental ethic, decision in ethic, and communicational ethic in a significant level. There is no effect of predicting behavioral ethic, the subscale of ethic leadership, on the subscale of sensibility to workers in organizational trust. As it is seen in this research’s diagnosis, the subscale of sensibility to workers on organizational trust explains ethic leadership’s environmental dimension most within the context of ethic leadership. Vicdan Altınok, Ercan Yılmaz 1511 School manager’s behaviors have many effects on creating a school environment supplying academic success in school and school success. There is an affirmative relation between school environment which affects school manager’s behaviors and teachers’ feeling good; and in teamwork (Cotton, 2003). Administrators have an important effect on creating an ethic environment and get in functioning. If administrators do not create ethic rules, policies and instructions and execute them, non-ethic behaviors may occur in association in some time later (Schwepker, 2001). Administrators may create an ethic environment, affects affirmatively the ethic behavior in organization, by creating ethic rules, judicial action and provides processing this judicial action and rules (Schwepker, 2001). It may not be seen possible to create a safe and environment full of safety without ethic. When administrators fulfill the duties on ethic leadership related to environmental ethic, workers start to feel being in a more sensible environment. This can affect their performance in an affirmative way. Brown, Trevino and Harrison (2005) found that ethic leadership has a highly effect on worker’s satisfaction of working, devotion to work and solving problems related to work. It shows that manager’s ethic leadership behaviors have an important contribution on teachers’ at school thinking that they are behaved more sensitive. Manager to trust, which is the subscale of organizational trust, affects all the dimensions of ethic leadership such as communicational ethic, behavioral ethic, decision in ethic, and environmental ethic in a significant level. The most effect to manager to trust, the subscale of organizational trust is communicational ethic, later behavioral ethic and decision in ethic. Trust is an important part of efficient leadership. In recent 40 years, in researches about leadership, it is emphasized that the fact of trust is an important part of leadership. Within the context of leadership, trust is the product of the relation between leader and tracers (Dirks and Skarlicki, 2004). The diagnosis of the research supports this situation. It appears that within the context of ethic leadership, the most important effect to manager to trust is ethic leadership’s communicational ethic‘s skills. This result emphasized the process of communication and the importance of ethic values during this process. In this system, people should express themselves comfortably and correctly. The basis of this system ought to create ethic values and managers ought to do this (Rebore, 2001). If manager wants to create a trust with his tracers, manager should respect the others. In interpersonal relations, whatever the characteristics of respect, religion, language, race, status, income, sex and level of education, in the process of communication, tolerance and respect are important (Şahin, 2005). 1512 To Investigate the Effect of School Managers’ Ethical Leadership Levels In interpersonal communication, ethic values such as clear, honest, intimacy and accuracy are important (Acar, 1998). According to Leisinger (2000), creating relations dependent on trust and continuing these relations are related to ethic values. Because of these, while manager’s creating relations dependent on trust, ethic values such as specifying the intent obviously, being receptive to others, listening to tracers, showing respect to all, trying to understand them, displaying other’s views and opinions, being sensible to tracers’ needs, knowing to apologize when it needs, are important. Organization managers’ behaviors related to ethic codes during the communication is important on the trust to tracers’ to organization and its’ part of trust to manager. Furthermore, one of the important ethic skill, which school manager has to be, is creating an effective communication (Moorhouse, 2002) School manager’s having ethic leadership’s communication ethic skills procedure organizational trust to the level of manager to trust in an important and high level. According to the diagnosis of the research, the dimension of ethic leadership’s behavioral ethic is another characteristic of organizational trust to the level of manager to trust. In a research made by Mayer, Davis and Schoorman (1995), it occurs that trust to leader and leader’s character is related, and trust to leader increase when ethic values, such as justice, equality, credit, accuracy in leader’s character, form. Communicational environment, the subscale of organizational trust, is affected by environmental ethic, communicational ethic, decision in ethic, and behavioral ethic. The most effect to communicational environment, the subscale of organizational trust is environmental ethic, later in turn, communicational ethic and decision in ethic. In the result of the research, if we consider that organizational trust and its subscale, communicational environment is the result of the workers’ interaction in the organization, this result is mostly affected by school manager’s environmental ethic behaviors within the context of ethic leadership. Schools as an organization needs an effective needs to fulfill its’ special functions and creating an environment dependent on trust. To provide the relations in the organization and the efficiency for problem solving related o the organization and for efficient relations, there has to be an efficient communication environment (Arslan and Arslan, 2003). Davis (2004) found an affirmative relation between ethic leadership and communication environment at school. In another word, to create an environment depended on reliance, work principles, openness to communication channels, teachers’ not hesitate to show their feelings about the school, developing affirmative work-relations, having no secret applications, executing clearly, transferring information on Vicdan Altınok, Ercan Yılmaz 1513 time and to all workers correctly and features such as teachers’ having a direct communication, are important. Aikman (2003) found in a research that managers’ ethic leader skills are important for the organization and there is a relation between ethic leadership behaviors and organization’s ethic orientations. These ethic leadership behaviors most affect the communication environment at school. In the process of creating the organization environment, school manager should present ethic skills. That is to say, for manager’s creating an efficient organization environment, manager should provoke teachers, disperse their opinions in a method of love approach, define a concrete aim cross future, do works in the sense of responsibility, create a proper environment to reveal teachers’ creative, willingness about learning, approve that teachers may think differently, favors teachers’ succeeds in just, create accurate school rules, create independent environment for arguments and be in an effort to increase professional activity (Yılmaz, 2005). When school managers achieve these, there will be an organizational environment where educational works are done in comfort. In this organizational environment, training workers can build an environment where they feel in more secure and more work-satisfaction. To gain and build trust, and create the process of communication ruggedly, there should be ethic values such as warmth, clarification, transparency, accuracy, honesty (Kaya and others, 2003). As it is understood in explanations and research’s diagnosis, it is very important for managers to have ethic skills to have a ruggedly communicational environment. Research’s diagnosis is supported by related explanations, too. Openness to changes, the subscale of organizational trust, is affected in a significant level by communication ethic, environmental ethic, and decision in ethic. The most effect to modernity, the subscale of organizational trust, is communicational ethic, later in turn environmental ethic and decision in ethic. Behavioral ethic which is the sub-dimension of ethic leadership has no significant effect on modernity, the subscale of organizational trust. To appear modernity, interaction in association is important. Communication exists in the basis of interaction environment in school environment (Sharp and Walter, 2003). It is identified as a result of the research that the effective communication environment has a high effect on a successful school (Cotton, 2003). Then, school managers are responsible for creating a structure supported by developmental and innovative activities (Schlechty, 2005). There is an affirmative relationship between communication environment, which managers create, and institutional modernity (Özçer, 2005:177). In this way, manager’s behaviors and communication skills, determining job environment, gain an important consequence. The most blocks in modernity and development is fear. They do not produce modern ideas as they are afraid of losing workers’ position being sneered, losing trust, being unsuccessful (Hunt and Buzan, 2003). To 1514 To Investigate the Effect of School Managers’ Ethical Leadership Levels supply an innovative environment, school managers should create an interactive and communication environment where teachers and workers do not suffer. Because of this, school manager ought to respect the teachers’ personality and heed. Besides, manager should make them feel that they are important and communicate in a natural and realistic way (Kochanek, 2005). That is to say, ethic leadership’s communicational ethic dimension should be presented. This diagnosis of the research this diagnosis is partly overlapped with the diagnosis of Garcia (2003) presented ethic leadership skills about emotional and professional even if managers have intense business tempo. Results and Suggestions In this part, general results and suggestion dependent on research’s diagnosis are given place. As it is understood in research’s diagnosis, school manager’s ethic leadership skills explain the level of organizational trust significantly. When it is searched within the context of organizational trust and subscales of ethic leadership, sensibility to workers which is the subscale of organizational trust affect all subscaless of ethic leadership, except behavioral ethic, in a significant level. The most effect is done by environmental ethic. According to the research’s results, trust in manager, subscale of organizational trust, is affected by all subscales of ethic leadership. The most effect on trust in manager, subscale of organizational trust is ethic leadership’s dimension of communicational ethic. Communicational environment, subscale of organizational trust, is affected by all subscales of ethic leadership in a significant way. Within the context of subscales of ethic leadership, communicational environment which is the subscale of organizational trust is procedured most by environmental ethic. When research’s diagnosis is analyzed lastly, it is found that modernity, subscale of organizational trust affects other subscales, except behavioral ethic, of ethic leadership. Openness to changes, subscale of organizational trust is most procedured by ethic leadership’s dimension of communicational ethic. Suggestions above can be developed with the help of achieving general results during the research. These suggestions are given under the catch title of training and research. 1. School managers’ ethic leadership skills, as a whole, positively affect the organizational trust at schools. Because of this, training programs can be prepared to develop the school managers’ ethic leadership skills and school managers can train within the context of this program. 2. Programs which aim to develop school managers’ ethic leadership skills can be prepared and its efficiency can be tested in experimental methods. Vicdan Altınok, Ercan Yılmaz 1515 3. Works related to how ethic leadership, except leadership skills, procedure the schools’ organizational trust separately or together, may contribute to be understood the relationship between trust and leadership. 4. Similar topics’ searching in training organizations except primary schools, may have an important contribution to the area. 5. As private schools are autonomous in terms of selecting of employees, charging, creating policy and strategy, comparing the level of organizational trust in public and private schools may occur different expansions in the area. References Acar, N. V. (1998). Terapotik İletişim. Ankara: Psikoloji Kitapları US-A Yayıncılık. Aikman, P.A. (2003). “Towards Ethical Leadership İn Health Care”, A Major Project Submitted İn Partial Fulfillment Of The Requirements For The Degree Of Master Of Arts İn Leadership And Training, Royal Roads University April, 2003. Arslan, E., B.Arslan (2003). Örgütsel İletişim ‘Genel İletişim’. Uğur Demiray (editör). Ankara: PEGEM A Yayıncılık. Barkow, J. H. (2000). Davranış Kuralları ve Evrenin Davranışı. Jean-Pierre Changeux (Çev. Nermin Acar), Etiğin Doğal Kökenleri. İstanbul: Ada Yayınları. Brown, M., E. L, Trevino ve A. D., Harrison (2005). “Ethical Leadership”: A Social Learning Perspective for Construct Development and Testing, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 97 (2005) 117134, www.sciencedirect.com Cotton, K. (2003). Principals and Student Achievement, Library of Congress Cataloging in Puplication. Davis, D. L, (2004). “A Correlative Study Of African-Amarican Adolescent Identity Development And Levels Of Cultural Mistrust:Implications For Ethical Education Leadership”, A dissertation Submitted To The Graduate College of Bowling Gren State University In Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements For The Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, May, 2004 Dırks, Kurt. T, Skarlich ve P, Dnaiel (2004). “Trust in Leader”, (Ed. Roderick, M. Kramer, Karen S. Cook) Trust and Distrust in Organizations. Russell Sage Foundation, New York s. 21. 1516 To Investigate the Effect of School Managers’ Ethical Leadership Levels Fukuyama, F. (1998). Güven Ankara: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları. Garcia, V. C. (2003). “A Case Study of a Holistic Model For The Professional Development of School Administration”, A Dissertation Submitted In Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements For The Degree of Doctor of Education, The Universitiy of New Mexico, December, 2003 Hale, S.V.H. (2000). “Comprehensive School Reform: Researchbased Strategies to Achieve High Standards. A Guidebook On School-Wide Improvement”. San Francisco, CA: WestEd, Comprehensive Regional Assistance Center, Region XI. Retrieved August 20,2003, from www.wested.org/csrd/guidebook/toc.htm. Hoy, W. K., M.,Tschannen-Moran. (2003). “The conceptualization and Measurement of Faculty Trust In Schools”: The Omnibus T-Scale. In W. K. Hoy & C. G. Miskel (Eds.), Studies in Leading and Organizing Schools (Vol. 2, pp. 181-208). Greenwich: CT.: Information Age Publishing. Hunt, R., T., Buzan. (2003).Düşünen Organizasyon. (Çev:Dinç Tayanç). İstanbul: Alfa Yayıncılık. Kochanek, J. R. (2005). Building Trust for Better Schools. California:Corwin Press A Sage Publications Company. Leisinger, K. M. (2000). İşletme Etiği, Çok Uluslu Şirketler Ve Gelişmekte Olan Ülkeler. Etik ve Meslek Etikleri. Türkiye Felsefe Kurumu. Ankara. Mayer, R.C., J.H.,Davis, & F.D., Schooonman. (1995). “An Integrative Model of Organizational Trust”, Academy of Management Review, 20, 709734. Moorhouse, J. R.(2002). “Desired Characteristics Of Ethical Leaders İn Business Educational, Political And Religious Organization From East Tennessee,” A Submitted to the Faculty to the Departman of Educational Leadership and Policy Analysis East Tennessee State University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Educaiton in Educational Leadership, Decemper, 2002. Kaya B., M.,Kılıç ve Y.,Karaçimen . (2003). Etik, Sosyal Sorumluluklar Ve Sosyal Sermaye; Türkiye’de Medya Yansımalarına İlişkin Bir Uygulama. 1st International Busines And Professional Ethics Congress Of Turkey, 661-673; MEB (2006) Kamu Görevlileri Etik Sözleşmesi, www.meb.gov.tr Vicdan Altınok, Ercan Yılmaz 1517 Özçer, N.(2005). Yönetimde Yaratıcılık ve Yenilikçilik. İstanbul: Rota Yayınları Rebore, R. W.(2001). The Ethics of Educational Leadershep, Merrill Prentice Hall, Ohio Schwepker C.H. (2001). “Ethical Climate's Relationship to Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, and Turnover Intention in the Salesforce”. Journal of Business Research. Vol.54, P.39-52, Schlechty, P. (2005). Okulu Yeniden Kurmak. Çev. Yüksel Özden).Ankara. Nobel Yayınevi. Sebring, P.B., A.S., Bryk. (2000). School Leadership and the Bottom Line İn Chicago. Phi Delta Kappan, 81(6), 440-443. Sharp, W.L., J.K., Walter.(2003). The Principal As School Manager, A Scarecrow Education Book, The Scarecrow Pres, Oxford. Yılmaz, E. (2005).” Etik Liderlik Ölçeği’nin Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalışması”, XlV.Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi Bildiri Kitabı, Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Denizli, ss. 808-814. Wekesser, C. (1995). Ethics, San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press. Training Needs of Teachers in Greece∗ D. B. Goudiras, University of Macedonia – Greece S. Polychronopoulou, University of Athens – Greece Σ. S. Papadopoulou, University of Ioannina – Greece K. Papadopoulos, University of Macedonia – Greece Abstract In our proposal, we present the results of an empirical research, which was conducted in Autumn 2007. The research involved a sample of 326 teachers of primary and secondary education from certain regions of Greece. The aim of the research was to illustrate –through a questionnaire- the types of deviant behavior and the crises that teachers encounter in their schools. The methods, strategies and means that teachers use to handle crises are also recorded. Moreover, the research traces the needs of teachers for knowledge acquisition and skill development through occupational training and support programs. The results of the research are important as they indicate content areas for teacher training programs. The Professional Development of Teachers Practical knowledge acquisition and professional skills development are integral parts of the professional development of teachers. The changing demands in the job market dictate changes in the content and the form of ∗ The research team consists of faculty members from many Greek universities, namely: D.B. Goudiras, A. Noulas, S. Polychronopoulou, S. Papadopoulou, K. Papadopoulos, I. Agaliotis, L. Kartasidou, N. Paleologou, E. Papavasiliou, K. Papageorgiou. 1520 Training Needs of Teachers in Greece teachers’ basic education, which are related with the educational policy philosophy of each country (Goudiras, Synodi, Angelis, 2002). In England, for example the systematic studies in the field of specialization, which stands as the base of teachers' work, focus in the preparation of the teachers in order to march out against technocratic revolutions, which are pushed forward from the education. The fact that future teachers do not choose to study the pedagogical science as their basic field of specialization but they rather choose fields such as English language, maths, physical sciences, which they tend to teach at school, without any extensive reference in pedagogical theories, proves that their professional education is underestimated. Instead, the teachers tend to become just appliers of practical techniques (technicians), (see also Furlong 1992, Gilroy 1991, Jacques 1998, Richards 1998). Sociologists distinguish between profession, occupation and vocation. A profession is characterized by: 1. Study and acquisition of theoretical knowledge and practical skills which are shared only by professionals in a specific field. 2. Complete freedom of professionals to decide what is best for their “clients”. 3. An ethical code that refers to solidarity among professionals and to a common attitude towards their clients. 4. Possibility to form and control job market to their benefit. 5. Professional pride and prestige that stems from their offering vital service to society. On these grounds, we were interested to see whether Greek teachers share a common identity and how their basic education contributes to this. According to the Department of Education of State University of New Jersey, professional development actions must meet the needs of the teacher and serve the goals and objectives of the school. Furthermore, these actions must be learning- and learner-centered, so as to enable students to develop independent and creative thinking in and out of school. Moreover, professional development must foster an on-going dialogue among teachers, which will promote the exchange of ideas among them. The Department also suggests eight points that should be considered in the design of teacher development programs. Conforming with the “No Child Left Behind” Act, that became law of the U.S.A. (2002), this list suggests the enhancement of knowledge, abilities and potentials of teachers and educational authorities so that they become able to support students’ learning and performance. More specifically, it is suggested that the professional development of teachers should: D. B. Goudiras, S. Polychronopoulou, Σ. S. Papadopoulou, K. Papadopoulos 1521 1. improve and increase teachers' knowledge of the academic subjects the teachers teach, and enable teachers to become highly qualified 2. be an integral part of broad educational improvement plans 3. give teachers, principals, and administrators the knowledge and skills to provide students with the opportunity to meet challenging academic content standards and student academic achievement standards 4. improve classroom management skills 5. be high quality, sustained, intensive, classroom-focused and mediumlong term workshops or seminars 6. support the recruiting, hiring, and training of highly qualified teachers 7. advance teacher understanding of effective instructional strategies 8. be aligned with and directly related to the national curriculum orientation Studies on the professional development of teachers have been conducted in Greece but do there are certain aspects that have not been investigated. Xohellis (1984) studied the attitudes of Greek teachers towards their pedagogic role, Pyrgiotakis (1992) investigated the working conditions of Greek teachers and Goudiras (1999) illustrated the profile of Greek teachers and their perceived position in the European Union. Goudiras, Synodi and Aggelis (2002) conducted a research in the attitudes of Greek kindergarten teachers and compared their profile with that of their British colleagues. Papanaoum (2003) investigated the views of primary and secondary teachers, focusing on the perspectives and practices that contribute to the reinforcement of the teacher’s role. Other studies and researches on teachers’ attitudes and professional issues (Vamvoukas, 1982; Mouchajer, 1985; Alexopoulos, 1990; Friderikos & Foleros, 1995; Kaila, Andreadakis, Xanthakou & Philippou, 1995; Xatzipanagiotou, 2001, Papanaoum, 2003; Lignos, 2006;) only present certain aspects of the situation. Consequently, there was need for a thorough nation-wide research in the education and the professional needs of Greek teachers. Frame of the Topic and Methodology This empirical research aims at investigating the professional perception and the educational needs of Greek teachers. It was conducted throughout Greece and involved teachers from primary and secondary education. Among the aims of the research were: a. To investigate the training needs of teachers in order to acquire knowledge and skills for effective management of crises and deviant behaviors. b. To conduct an in-depth study of the education and vocational training of Greek teachers in order to illustrate the present situation and also to suggest a complete plan for the development and implementation of 1522 Training Needs of Teachers in Greece training programmes that will help teachers with this thorny educational issue. More specifically, our study aims to explore: 1. In what subjects teachers wish to acquire vocational training. 2. If the training needs of the teachers differ according to their specialty. 3. How long the seminars should be and by which institution they should be offered. 4. If teachers at all levels of education share a common professional identity. Demographical characteristics of the participants (sample) The sample consists of 326 teachers from all levels of compulsory education and from different fields who work in schools all over Greece. The participants were from 23 to over 60 years of age and worked in kindergartens, primary schools, junior high schools and high schools, as well as in vocational schools. There were a number of teachers (6.7%) who worked in special education. The educational level of the participants was high. 92.7% of them had a university degree, whereas 14.7% also had a postgraduate or doctoral degree. A substantial number of them had attended seminars and training courses offered by different teacher training institutions more than once. Measure A non-standardized questionnaire was used, which was trailed for reliability and validity in a pilot study. The final questionnaire assesses five parameters: a. Demographical data b. Types of deviant behavior of students (interpersonal relations, undesirable behavior, foreign students or other language speaking students) c. Perceived roles of the teacher d. Methods, strategies and techniques to improve deviant behaviors e. Vocational training and perceived professional readiness of teachers The questionnaire consisted of closed questions. To five questions teachers had to tick the statements that they agreed with. The rest of the questions were of a Likert type. Participants had to choose a number from 1 (Rarely happens or Do not agree at all) to 5 (Happens every day or Agree very much). We will hereafter analyze the results concerning the last parameter (e). D. B. Goudiras, S. Polychronopoulou, Σ. S. Papadopoulou, K. Papadopoulos 1523 Professional education and professional awareness The suggested content of teachers’ undergraduate education In order to be adequately prepared to handle deviant behaviors the participants stated that undergraduate studies of teachers should include more “Social sciences” courses and more practice time at schools and social institutions. Social subjects that were considered essential were “Pedagogy”, “Psychology” and “Special education”. Considering the fact that social sciences may have been chosen due to their top position in the questionnaire, it is preferable to focus on the choice of more practice time. It is also noteworthy that “Arts” was chosen almost as much as the very diverse subject of “New technologies and Informatics”. (More specifically, music, drama, painting, informatics and digital communication). Among theoretical studies, “Literature” was the most preferred subject whereas “Neurosciences” was the most popular subject among sciences. The three groups of teachers –kindergarten, primary and secondary schooldo not present significant differentiation in their priorities, bringing Pedagogy, Psychology and Special Education to the top of their preferences. This fact reflects the awareness of teachers of their inadequate knowledge on these subjects, which they consider vital for the effective handling of behavior problems at school. On the contrary, there is statistically significant differentiation in the priorities of the three groups of teachers in sciences (F= 6.593, p<0.01). Secondary school teachers appear less interested in these subjects than kindergarten and primary school teachers. This finding can be attributed to the lack of specialization of the latter. The need for more on-the-job practice appears significantly higher to kindergarten teachers than to secondary teachers (F= 5.054, p<0.01). This finding depicts the need to transform theory into practical strategies and techniques, which is much more intense to kindergarten teachers than to teachers of adolescents (t= 3.049, df= 122, p<0.01). Proportion of theoretical learning to practical training of teachers In order to elicit the participants’ suggestions about the efficiency of their undergraduate studies we posed a question about the perceived ideal proportion of theory to practice that would enable them to handle modern problems associated with social and emotional learning. So, 109 teachers found theory as important as practice while almost equal number of teachers value theory more than practice and vice versa. (85 for theory and 89 for practice). There is not significant differentiation in the answers of kindergarten, primary and secondary school teachers. 1524 Training Needs of Teachers in Greece Satisfaction from the effectiveness of teachers’ interventions in behavioral problems at school Asked about the effectiveness of teachers’ interventions in behavioral problems at school, 35.1% of the participants are moderately content with their methods, 41.1% are content and only 7.9% of the participants are very content. Teachers appear to be more satisfied with themselves in issues that have to do with molding children’s personality, the acceptance of their means and methods by their students, and the acknowledgement of their work by colleagues and parents. Teachers find the available means of psycho-pedagogical support of students inadequate and they are not satisfied with the response of specialists or of institutions responsible for students’ behavior problems or crises management. Moreover, they feel that they lack knowledge and skills necessary for handling such problems. Consequently, they are only moderately satisfied from the results of their attempts to handle incidents of deviant behavior at schools considering the time they spend on them. These findings are important as they reflect teachers’ awareness of their professional lacks and weaknesses as well as their need for professional development and reinforcement. Subjects suggested for inclusion in vocational training courses Subjects % of teachers who chose the subjects 1st, 2nd or 3rd 1st choice 2nd choice 3rd choice 1. On-the-job practice 18.7 9.5 20.5 Sum 48.8 2. School counseling 11.7 24.5 11.0 47.2 3. Psychopedagogy / School psychology 24.8 9.5 8.3 42.6 4. Special Education 13.5 10.7 9.8 34.0 Duration of teacher training programs There has been much discussion among teachers concerning the kind and duration of training programs (either initial or in the service). The participants’ answers show that the six-month duration of training programs (150-300 hours) with a parallel reduction of their occupation's time at school is the most popular. There follows the one-year duration (300-600 hours) with a parallel reduction of occupation's time at school. Short, repeated, in-service training courses of 20 to 60 hours come third in the participants’ preference. Teacher training institutions Asked about which institution they consider as more appropriate to offer teacher training courses, the participants preferred the relevant university D. B. Goudiras, S. Polychronopoulou, Σ. S. Papadopoulou, K. Papadopoulos 1525 departments. Second was the Ministry of Education with the Institution of Teachers Training (O.EP.EK) and Peripheral Centers of Teachers Training (PEK). Third were ranked the Institutes of Continuing Education (IDE). This foreshadows that these institutions of life-long learning are going to be accepted widely, at least as far as teachers are concerned. Other institutions that may offer training courses, such as municipal or prefecture authorities or schools, in the form of in-service training, were equally ranked fourth. Finally, syndicates and non-educational institutions fell way behind, in the last position. Conclusions To sum up the results of this part of our research, we see that subjects belonging to social and theoretical studies are mostly preferred by teachers as subjects of teacher training courses. These findings can be explained in terms of the relation they bear to matters of class management and behavior problems. Furthermore, it is worth pointing out that theoretical education and practical training are equally valued as parts of undergraduate education as well as of teacher training courses. The fact that participants preferred long-term training courses offered by universities depicts the demand for high quality training, as well as the extent of teachers’ training needs. Teachers’ professional training should include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Understanding of deviant behaviors Conduct management skills Communicative skills and teacher-student interaction skills Methods of handling Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Intervention programs for the development of social skills and tolerance. Data analysis shows that older teachers prefer shorter training courses than their younger colleagues. Also, they would rather attend theoretical subjects than practical ones and they are not interested in courses "on-the-job training". Studies on the training needs of Greek primary school teachers (Paleologou & Papachristos, 2000; Papanaum & Xohellis, 2001) showed that they would like to receive training on Teaching Methodology, Counseling, Special Education and Intercultural Education. The results of our research also showed that teachers do not feel ready and efficient for their pedagogical and counseling role in the modern school. They also believe that basic education of teachers does contribute to the formation of a common professional identity, which was also mentioned in Goudiras, Synodi and Angelis (2002). There are significant differences between kindergarten, primary and secondary school teachers, concerning the application of teaching methodology in the classroom. The fact can be attributed to the inadequate basic education of secondary school teachers, especially of the older ones, as Pedagogy and 1526 Training Needs of Teachers in Greece Psychology were not included in their university education. Finally, we must underline the strong demand of all teachers, especially in primary education, for more on-the-job practice both in their undergraduate studies and in their professional training courses. References Alexopoulos, A. The changing role of teachers of secondary education in Greece. Factors of the burnout, stress and satisfaction from the job, Nea Paideia (1990), Vol. 53-54. Friderikos, A. and Foleros, F. (1991). The elementary school teachers, Athens. Furlong, J. (1992), στο Barton, L. Barrett, E. Whitty, G. Miles, S. Furlong, J. (1994) Teacher Education and Teacher Professionalism in England: Some Emerging Issues British Journal of Sociology of Education, τευχ. 15 (4) σελ. 529-543. Gilroy, D. P. (1991), The Loss of Professional Autonomy: the Releance of Olga Mytyash’s Paper to the Brave New World of British Education Journal of Education for Teaching, τευχ. 17 (1) σελ. 11-15. Goudiras, Dimitrios B. (2000). Die berufliche Identität des griechischen Lehrers und ihre europäische Dimension, in: Fritz-Ulrich Kolbe and Rudolf Tippelt (edits.), Pädagogische Praxis und erziehungswissenschaftliche Theorie zwischen Lokalität und Globalität, Frankfurt a. M., Peter Lang, S. 74-93. Goudiras, Dimitrios B., Synodi, Evanthia and Angelis, Leonidas (2002). The professional profile of teachers. Proposal at the 2nd international conference: The Pedagogy in the Beginning of the 21st century. Historical comparative approaches, October 2-4, 2002. University of Patras (proceedings). Graduate Τeacher Training Registry (2002). School-centered initial teacher training. Want to Teach? http://www.gttr.ac.uk/teach/england.html στις 3/10/2002 Hatzipanagiotou, P. (2003. The teachers' training. Issues of organization, planning and evaluation. Athens, Dardanos Publ.Inc. Jacques, K. (1998) The TTA, Higher Education and the Professionalism of Initial Training Educators, In Richards, C. Simco, N. Twiselton, S. (επιµ) (1998), Primary Teacher Education, High status? High Standards? London Falmer Press. D. B. Goudiras, S. Polychronopoulou, Σ. S. Papadopoulou, K. Papadopoulos 1527 Kaila, M., Andreadakis, C., Xanthakou, G. and Philippou, G. (1995). Redefinition of professional profile of Greek teachers. Optimistic or pessimistic attitudes, in Kaila, M., Andreadakis, C., Xanthakou, G. and Philippou, G. School failure. Athens, Hellenic Grammata. Lignos, Dimitris (2006). Thoughts and results about the teachers' training, Virtual School, The sciences of Education Online, Vol. 3, No. 3 http://www.auth.gr/virtualschool/3.3/Praxis/LignosTrainingEducators.ht ml Mouchajer, C. (1985). Role conflict on the teachers' profession. Thessaloniki, Kyriakides Br.Inc. New Jersey /Department of Education. Teacher Professional Development/ http://www.gttr./8-9-2008 No Child Left Behind Act (2002), http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/ esea02/107-110.pdf Palaiologou, N. (2002), Research in preschool teachers, teachers, special education teachers regarding to their pedagogical and teaching awareness during the teaching of students of different cultural origin, Post doctoral Degree in Greece, IKY. Papanaoum, Z. (2003). The profession of teacher. Athens, Dardanos Publ.Inc Pyrgiotakis, I. (1992). The Odyssey of the teachers' profession. Thessaloniki, Kyriakidis. Qualifying to Teach: Ρrofessional Standards for Qualified Teacher Status and Requirements for Initial Teacher Training, (2002) http://www.canteach.gov.uk/community/itt/requirements/qualifying/ind ex.htm. Richards, C. (1998), Primary Teaching: High status? High Standards? A Personal Response to Recent Initiatives, In Richards, C. Simco, N. Twiselton, S. (επιµ) (1998), Primary Teacher Education, High status? High Standards? London Falmer Press. Vamvoukas, M.I. (1982). Motivation to the teacher’s job, Heraklion. Xohellis,P.D. (1984). The pedagogical act as social role, Thessaloniki, Kyriakides Br.Inc.

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